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Balbharti Maharashtra State Board Class 11 Secretarial Practice Solutions Chapter 4 Documents Related to Formation of a Company Textbook Exercise Questions and Answers.

Maharashtra State Board Class 11 Secretarial Practice Solutions Chapter 4 Documents Related to Formation of a Company

1A. Select the correct answer from the options given below and rewrite the statements.

Question 1.
___________ is a primary document of the company which contains the aims and objectives of the company.
(a) Memorandum of Association
(b) Articles of Association
(c) Prospectus
Answer:
(a) Memorandum of Association

Question 2.
___________ describes the relationship between company and outsiders.
(a) Memorandum of Association
(b) Articles of Association
(c) Prospectus
Answer:
(a) Memorandum of Association

Question 3.
The ___________ clause describes the range of activities a company can undertake.
(a) Name
(b) Capital
(c) Object
Answer:
(c) Object

Question 4.
Any act done by the company beyond the Powers of Memorandum is called as ___________
(a) Doctrine of indoor management
(b) Ultra-Vires
(c) Mis-statement
Answer:
(b) Ultra-Vires

Question 5.
___________ acts are void or legally ineffective.
(a) Object clause
(b) Main object
(c) Ultra Vires
Answer:
(c) Ultra Vires

Question 6.
___________ clause contains the details of liability of the members.
(a) Name
(b) Liability
(c) Object
Answer:
(b) Liability

Question 7.
___________ clause states the amount of Authorised capital with which the company is registered.
(a) Liability
(b) Object
(c) Capital
Answer:
(c) Capital

Question 8.
___________ contains rules and regulations for internal management of the company.
(a) Articles of Association
(b) Prospectus
(c) Memorandum of Association
Answer:
(a) Articles of Association

Question 9.
Articles establishes relationship between company and ___________
(a) members
(b) outsiders
(c) ROC
Answer:
(a) members

Question 10.
___________ is an invitation to the public to subscribe for shares of the company.
(a) Memorandum
(b) Prospectus
(c) Articles of Association
Answer:
(b) Prospectus

Question 11.
For making multiple issue of shares within a year, a company can prepare a ___________ Prospectus.
(a) Abridged
(b) Shelf
(c) Red Herring
Answer:
(b) Shelf

Question 12.
___________ is an incomplete prospectus.
(a) Red Herring Prospectus
(b) Shelf Prospectus
(c) Abridged Prospectus
Answer:
(a) Red Herring Prospectus

1B. Match the pairs.

Question 1.

Answer:

1C. Write a word or a term or a phrase that can substitute each of the following statements.

Question 1.
The primary document of a company states the aims and objectives of a company.
Answer:
Memorandum of Association

Question 2.
The document establishes the company’s relationship with outsiders.
Answer:
Memorandum of Association

Question 3.
The document states the limits within which a company has to operate.
Answer:
Memorandum of Association

Question 4.
The document contains Name Clause, Registered Office Clause, Capital Clause, etc.
Answer:
Memorandum of Association

Question 5.
The document is subordinate to the Memorandum of Association.
Answer:
Articles of Association

Question 6.
The document contains rules and regulations for internal management.
Answer:
Articles of Association

Question 7.
A term used for acts beyond the scope of the Memorandum of Association.
Answer:
Ultra-Vires

Question 8.
The clause describes the main activities a company can undertake.
Answer:
Object Clause

Question 9.
The clause gives details of Authorized Capital or Registered Capital.
Answer:
Capital Clause

Question 10.
The clause describes the extent of liability of members.
Answer:
Liability Clause

Question 11.
The last clause of the Memorandum contains the name, signature, and other details of all the subscribers of the Memorandum.
Answer:
Association or Subscription Clause

Question 12.
The document establishes a relationship between a company and its members.
Answer:
Articles of Association

Question 13.
Document issued by public company inviting the public to subscribe to its shares.
Answer:
Prospectus

Question 14.
Prospectus attached with every share application form.
Answer:
Abridged Prospectus

Question 15.
Prospectus used for multiple issues of shares within a year.
Answer:
Shelf Prospectus

Question 16.
It is an incomplete prospectus.
Answer:
Red Herring Prospectus

Question 17.
This prospectus does not contain information about the quantum of shares to be issued or the price at which shares will be issued.
Answer:
Red Herring Prospectus

1D. State whether the following statements are True or False.

Question 1.
A Memorandum of Association and Articles of Association are prepared at the time of incorporation of a company.
Answer:
True

Question 2.
Memorandum of Association describes the nature and character of the company.
Answer:
True

Question 3.
Memorandum establishes the relationship between Company and Members.
Answer:
False

Question 4.
Any act done by the company beyond the Powers of Memorandum is Ultra-Vires.
Answer:
True

Question 5.
Articles of Association can have provisions that contradict the Memorandum.
Answer:
False

Question 6.
Memorandum need not have a Liability Clause.
Answer:
False

Question 7.
Articles of Association are subordinate to Memorandum.
Answer:
True

Question 8.
A memorandum contains rules and regulations for the internal management of a company.
Answer:
False

Question 9.
Every subscriber who signs the Memorandum must also sign the Articles.
Answer:
True

Question 10.
Entrenched Articles cannot be easily altered.
Answer:
True

Question 11.
Prospectus can be issued by a private company.
Answer:
False

Question 12.
Only public companies can issue Prospectus.
Answer:
True

Question 13.
The prospectus must be issued within 1 year from the date of filing it with the ROC.
Answer:
False

Question 14.
Actions can be taken against a company or its officers for misstatements in the prospectus.
Answer:
True

Question 15.
Every company has to issue a shelf prospectus every time it offers shares to the public.
Answer:
False

Question 16.
Red Herring prospectus does not contain details of the price at which shares will be sold by the company.
Answer:
True

Question 17.
Letter of the offer is issued at the time of Rights Issue.
Answer:
True

1E. Find the odd one.

Question 1.
Name Clause, Rights of Board of Directors, Object Clause.
Answer:
Rights of Board of Directors

Question 2.
Rights of shareholders, Appointment and remuneration of Directors, Liability clause.
Answer:
Liability Clause

Question 3.
Shelf prospectus, Abridged Prospectus, Articles of Association.
Answer:
Articles of Association

1F. Complete the sentences.

Question 1.
The documents which state the aims and objectives of a company is called as ___________
Answer:
Memorandum of Association

Question 2.
Any act done by the company which goes beyond the powers of Memorandum of Association will be called as ___________
Answer:
Ultra-Vires

Question 3.
The document which is subordinate to the Memorandum of Association is called ___________
Answer:
Articles of Association

Question 4.
The document which contains the rules and regulations governing the internal management of a company is called ___________
Answer:
Articles of Association

Question 5.
The document issued by a company to invite investors to buy its securities is called as ___________
Answer:
Prospectus

1G. Select the correct option from the bracket.

Question 1.

(Articles of Association, Red Herring Prospectus, Primary document, Details of liability of members)
Answer:

1H. Answer in one sentence.

Question 1.
Which document contains the aims and objectives of the company?
Answer:
Memorandum of Association contains the aims and objectives of the company.

Question 2.
What does the capital clause describe?
Answer:
The capital clause states the amount of capital with which the company is registered and the division of it into shares of a fixed amount.

Question 3.
When is Abridged Prospectus issued?
Answer:
Abridged Prospectus is issued only in case of a public offer made by a company.

1I. Correct the underlined word and rewrite the following sentences.

Question 1.
Articles of Association states the aims and objectives of the company.
Answer:
Memorandum of Association states the aims and objectives of the company.

Question 2.
The prospectus is subordinate to the Memorandum of Association.
Answer:
Articles of Association are subordinate to Memorandum of Association.

Question 3.
The prospectus contains a liability clause.
Answer:
Memorandum of Association contains a liability clause.

1J. Arrange in proper order.

Question 1.
(a) Subscription clause
(b) Name clause
(c) Object clause
Answer:
(a) Name clause
(b) Object clause
(c) Subscription clause

2. Explain the following terms/concepts.

Question 1.
Memorandum of Association
Answer:

• It is a secondary document.
• A Memorandum of Association is a primary document of a company.
• It states the objects for which the company is formed.
• A Memorandum of Association of a company is a charter or constitution of a company.
• It describes the range of activities a company can undertake.
• No company can be registered without a Memorandum of Association.
• Memorandum establishes a relationship between the company and an outsider.

Question 2.
Articles of Association
Answer:

• Articles of Association is a secondary document.
• It contains rules and regulations that govern the internal management of the company.
• Articles of Association is also known as Bye-laws of a company.
• It defines the powers, duties, and rights of managers officers, and board of directors.
• It establishes a relationship between the company and its members.
• This document is subordinate to Memorandum.

Question 3.
Name Clause
Answer:

• This clause contains the name of the company.
• The name of the company should not be identical to any existing company.
• If it is a private company, then it should have the word Private Limited at the end.
• And in the case of a public company, then it should add the word limit at the end of its name.
• For eg ABC Private Limited in the case of the private and ABC Ltd for a public company.

Question 4.
Object Clause
Answer:

• This clause states the objective with which the company is formed.
• It is the most important clause of the Memorandum of Association.
• The clause defines the scope and limitations of the activities of the company.
• The objects must be clearly defined keeping in mind the following conditions.
  • The objects of the company must be legal.
  • The objects should not be against the provisions of any law.
  • The objects must not be immoral.

Question 5.
Liability Clause
Answer:

• This clause defines the liability of the members of the company.
• In the case of companies limited by shares, the liability of the members is limited to the extent of unpaid shares.
• In the case of a company limited by guarantee, the liability is limited to the amount of guarantee given by each member.
• In the case of an unlimited liability company with or without share capital, this clause states that the liability of its members is unlimited.

Question 6.
Capital Clause
Answer:

• This clause states the amount of capital with which the company is registered.
• The capital with which the company is registered is called registered capital or authorized capital.
• A company can issue only that number of shares that are authorized by its memorandum.
• The company has to alter the capital clause if the company wants to issue more shares than authorized capital.

Question 7.
Registered Office Clause
Answer:

• This clause contains the name of the state in which the registered office of the company is to be situated.
• Every company must have a registered office within 30 days of its incorporation.
• A registered office is a place where all the important documents of the company are kept.
• The registered office clause determines the jurisdiction of the Registrar of Companies and of the court.

Question 8.
Ultra Vires act
Answer:

• The word Ultra means beyond and the word Vires means the powers.
• Thus Ultra-Vires means beyond the powers of Memorandum.
• The doctrine of ultra-vires states that any activity done by a company that is beyond the powers of the company will be null and void.
• The purpose of the Doctrine of Ultra-Vires is to protect all the stakeholders.
• The stakeholders have the right to see that the company uses their money for the objects mentioned in Memorandum.

Question 9.
The doctrine of Indoor Management
Answer:

• The doctrine of Indoor Management states that persons entering into a contract with the company need not inquire whether the company or its officers have properly followed the internal proceedings.
• It is assumed that the company acts as per its Memorandum and Articles of Association.
• The doctrine of Indoor Management protects the interest of outsiders when they act based on the Memorandum of Association and Articles of Association.

Question 10.
Prospectus
Answer:

• A prospectus is any document that invites deposits or offers from the public for the purchase of any shares or debentures of a company.
• When a public company is collecting capital by issuing shares to the public has to issue a prospectus.
• The prospectus must be true and factual as investors decide to invest based on the information given in the prospectus.
• The types of the prospectus issued by a company are:
  • Abridged Prospectus
  • Shelf Prospectus
  • Red Herring Prospectus
  • Letter of offer
  • Offer Letter

Question 11.
Mis-statements in Prospectus
Answer:

• Mis-statements means:
  • The statement is misleading in form or content.
  • Where any inclusion of statement or omission is likely to mislead the reader.
• If the investor has purchased shares based on the misleading information in the prospectus he can take action against the company.
• The company and persons will be responsible for issuing mis-statement prospectus and have to face liability.

Question 12.
Abridged Prospectus
Answer:

• Abridged Prospectus contains the main contents of a prospectus in brief.
• It is attached with the application form issued by the company while offering securities.
• The abridged prospectus is issued only in case of a public offer made by a company.
• It contains all the salient features of a prospectus.

Question 13.
Shelf Prospectus
Answer:

• The company instead of preparing a fresh prospectus for every issue prepares a shelf prospectus.
• Shelf Prospectus can be used for all issues made by the company for up to one year.
• An Information Memorandum has to be filed with ROC every time during the validity period of one year of the shelf prospectus.
• Information Memorandum contains latest material facts such as new charges, changes in financial position, etc.

Question 14.
Red Herring Prospectus
Answer:

• A red herring prospectus is a kind of incomplete prospectus as it does not include complete particulars of the quantity/price of the securities.
• It is usually issued at the time of IPO (Initial Public Offer).
• A red herring prospectus shall have the same obligations that are applicable to the prospectus.
• A company must file a Red Herring Prospectus with ROC at least 3 days prior to the opening of the subscription list and the offer.

3. Study the following case/situation and express your opinion.

1. The Articles of a company stated that while borrowing any money from outsiders, the document must have the signatures of the Managing Director (MD) and any one of the Director. The Articles of Association clearly stated the procedure to be followed while borrowing money. The Managing Director did not follow all the procedures but still borrowed money from Mr. X. Mr. X assumed that the MD has followed the required procedures.

Question (a).
Can the MD be held punishable for his act?
Answer:
He can be held liable for his actions and can be insisted to pay back the loan amount.

Question (b).
Under which Doctrine can Mr. X take action against the company?
Answer:
Under Doctrine of Indoor Management.

Question (c).
Explain the Doctrine.
Answer:

• According to this doctrine, persons dealing with the company need not inquire whether internal proceedings relating to the contract are correctly followed.
• They are satisfied that the transactions are in accordance with the memorandum and articles of association.
• If there are any internal irregularities then the company will be liable as the person has acted in good faith and he did not know about the internal arrangement of the company.
• Similarly with X as he has acted in good faith and lent money to the managing director, but the managing director did not follow the procedure. So there is an irregularity that can make the director liable for his actions.

2. Mr. A entered into a contract with Star Limited Company and as advance payment gave a cheque of ₹ 1 lac to a Director Mr. Sam. Mr. Sam is not the Managing Director. Articles state that only the MD is authorized to sign any contracts or receive any payments on behalf of the company.

Question (a).
Did Mr. Sam have the authority to accept the cheque? Why?
Answer:
Sam did not have the authority to accept the cheque because usually, individual directors do not have the authority to act on the company’s behaviour unless expressly authorized.

Question (b).
Can Mr. Sam’s action be called as Ultra-Vires? Why?
Answer:
Mr. Sam’s action cannot be called ultra-vires because any act done by him beyond the powers of the memorandum is called Ultra-Vires.

3. The Object clause of Memorandum of a Company stated the main object as manufacturing of plastic chairs and tables and any other activity in furtherance of achievement of its main activity. The Board of Directors wants also to produce T.V. Serials and feels that the shareholders may give their permission.

Question (a).
Can the company with immediate effect start producing T.V. serials? Why?
Answer:
No, a company cannot start producing T.V. serials with immediate effect. A company cannot indulge in activities other than those provided in the object clause. The activities carried outside the scope drawn by the Memorandum of Association are called Ultra-Vires activities.

Question (b).
How can the object clause of the company be altered?
Answer:
A special resolution must be passed in the General Meeting for altering the object clause.

4. A public limited company has issued all the shares mentioned in its Memorandum as Authorised Capital. Now the company wants to make a public issue of 10,000 shares at a face value of ₹ 100 per share, to raise more funds for its expansion activities.

Question (a).
Which clause of Memorandum needs to be altered?
Answer:
The capital clause of the memorandum needs to be altered.

Question (b).
In which meeting the alteration can be approved?
Answer:
A capital clause is altered by passing an ordinary resolution in a general meeting of the company.

Question (c).
Which document should the company issue to invite the public to buy its shares?
Answer:
The prospectus is the document issued to invite the public to buy its shares.

5. A Company stated in its prospectus that it has been making profits for the last 5 years. However, Mr. X., an investor found out that two years back the company had not made any profit. The prospectus was filed with ROC on 1st January 2017 and was issued to the public on 10th February 2018.

Question (a).
Can Mr. X state that there was mis-statement in the prospectus?
Answer:
Yes, Mr. X can state mis-statement in the prospectus.

Question (b).
If found guilty which two types of liability will the company and its officers face?
Answer:

• Civil liability (Pay compensation for loss suffered by the investor)
• Criminal liability companies or their officers will be fined or imprisoned or both.

Question (c).
Can the prospectus be valid for the issue to the public on 10th February 2018?
Answer:
No, the prospectus will not be valid for the issue to the public on 10th February 2018.

6. A Company plans to offer Rights Issues.

Question (a).
Which document must it send to its shareholders for offering the rights issue?
Answer:
Letter of the offer must be sent to its shareholders for offering the rights issue.

Question (b).
Instead of the rights issue, if the company wants to issue shares to the public which document must it issue for inviting the public to subscribe to it.
Answer:
The prospectus is the document to be issued by the company if it wants to issue shares to the public instead of rights issues.

Question (c).
Name the document which is called an incomplete prospectus.
Answer:
Red Herring prospectus is called an incomplete prospectus.

4. Distinguish between the following.

Question 1.
Memorandum of Association and Articles of Association.
Answer:

5. Answer in brief.

Question 1.
State any four clauses of Memorandum of Association.
Answer:
Memorandum of Association is a basic document, which gives information about the aims and objects of the company. It is also a charter of a company.

The following are four clauses of Memorandum of Association:
(i) Name Clause:

• This clause state the company’s proposed name.
• It must end with the word limited if its a public company or private limited if its a private company.
• It can’t be identical to any existing company’s name.
• It can’t resemble any registered Trade Mark.
• It should not be misleading in any way.

(ii) Registered office clause:

• The registered office clause lists the name of the state where the company’s registered office is physically located.
• The registered office’s physical location determines which jurisdiction the Registrar of companies and which court the company would fall under.
• It also confirms the company’s nationality .
• The registered office’s full address must be provided to the Registrar of companies to simplify further communications.

(iii) The object clause:

• This clause defines the objects for which a company is formed. It indicates the range of activities a company can undertake. This clause states in detail the main object for which the company is to be incorporated.
• The objects of the company must not be illegal, immoral or against the public policy.
• A company cannot do anything beyond or outside the scope of its objects.

(iv) Liability clause:

• The liability clause explains what liability each of the company’s member faces. If the company is limited by shares the liability that each member faces can be no more than the face value of share.
• If the company is limited by guarantee, this clause must define how much liability each individual company member holds.

Question 2.
State any four contents of Articles of Association.
Answer:
Articles of Association is a document which contains rules and regulations that governs the internal management.
The following are the four contents of Articles of Association:

• Share capital – Shares and their value and their division into different types of shares.
• Rights of each class of shareholders and procedure for variation of their rights.
• Procedure relating to allotment of shares, making of calls and forfeiture of shares.
• Rules relating to transfer and transmission of shares and the procedure to be followed.

Question 3.
State the statutory requirements in relation to Prospectus.
Answer:
Prospectus is an invitation to public to purchase its share and debentures. It is issued after the formation of company.
The following are the statutory requirements in relation to Prospectus:

• Draft Prospectus to be made Public: A draft prospectus filed with SEBI by the company should be made available to the public and to the stock exchange where the company wants to lists its shares.
• Signed by Director’s: Prospectus must be signed by all directors or by duly authorised attorney.
• Registration of Prospectus: A copy of the prospectus must be registered with ROC before issuing it to the public.
• Dating of Prospectus: A prospectus has to be dated. The date on the prospectus is considered as the date of publication of prospectus.
• Issuing Prospectus to Public: Prospectus must be issued to the public within 90 days from the date of registering a copy with the ROC.

6. Justify the following statements.

Question 1.
Memorandum of Association defines the limitations of the powers of the company.
Answer:

• The Memorandum of Association is a basic or fundamental or primary document of a company.
• It contains the following clauses: Name clause, Address clause, Object clause, Liability clause,Capital clause, Association of subscription clause.
• The entire business centres around its object clause.
• Object clause of the Memorandum of Association defines the area beyond which the company cannot do anything.
• It determines the powers of the company.
• It helps the stakeholders to know what is its permitted range of operation.
• A company is governed by Memorandum of Association and any act beyond it shall be considered as ultra-vires.
• Hence, Memorandum of Association defines the limitations of the power of the company.

Question 2.
Ultra-vires acts are null and void.
Answer:

• A Memorandum of Association of a company is a basic charter of the company.
• If a company departs from its Memorandum of Association such an act is ultra-vires.
• The doctrine of ultra vires is a fundamental rule of company law.
• An act legally in itself but not authorized by the object clause of Memorandum of Association of a company is ultra-vires.
• Hence if the company does an act or enters into a contract beyond the powers of the company then the act is said to be null and void.
• The company cannot sue on an ultra-vires transaction or it cannot be sued.
• Thus, I agree with the above statement.

Question 3.
Contents of Articles can be altered.
Answer:

• As per section 2(2) of the companies Act, 1956 ‘Articles’ means Articles of Association of a company as originally framed or as altered from time to time in pursuance of any previous companies’ law or of this Act.
• The Articles regulate the internal management of a company.
• It states the relationship between the company and its members.
• The articles, being the internal regulations of a company can be altered easily.
• The articles are required to be altered from time to time as per changes made by the government in the company law or as per changing situations in the corporate sector.
• Thus, the Articles of Association can be altered by passing a ‘Special Resolution’ at a general meeting.

Question 4.
The doctrine of Indoor Management protects outsiders who are unaware of the correctness of the internal proceedings of a company.
Answer:

• The doctrine of Indoor Management states that a person entering into a contract with the company need not inquire whether the company has followed the internal processing.
• It is assumed that the company acts as per the Memorandum of Association and Articles of Association.
• Because certain information which is internal to a company cannot be known to outsiders.
• So the doctrine of Indoor Management protects the interest of the outsider when the act is based on the Memorandum of Association and Articles of Association.

Question 5.
A prospectus is an important document issued by a public company.
Answer:

• A prospectus usually is in the form of a statement giving all material information about the company and showing its future prospectus.
• It aims at inviting investors to subscribe to its shares and debentures.
• It is a must for every public company to prepare its prospectus.
• It is through the prospectus that the prospective investors know the details of the shares offered by the company.
• Otherwise, the investors would have no idea of the shares that a public company is selling.
• All detailed information about a company like its business management, financial structure, etc., are provided in the prospectus.
• The main idea to issue a prospectus is to collect capital for the company from the general public.
• It should contain true, fair, and correct information.
• Hence, the prospectus is very important for a public company.

Question 6.
Company and officers responsible for issuing Prospectus are liable for mis-statements in Prospectus.
Answer:

• The prospectus is a written document giving an invitation to the public to purchase shares or debenture of the company.
• It provides all the necessary information about a company, its business, the management, financial structure, etc., of a company.
• A prospectus must be prepared very carefully and accurately.
• It should contain true and correct information and honest disclosure of facts.
• A company and all those officials can be held responsible for any mis-statement in the prospectus.
• These people have to face severe consequences.
• The shareholder can cancel the contract.
• Persons authorizing the issue of prospectus containing mis-statement are punishable with imprisonment of two years and a fine up to ₹ 5,000.
• Thus, I agree with the above statement.

7. Answer the following questions.

Question 1.
Briefly explain the clauses of the Memorandum of Association.
Answer:

• The Memorandum of Association is the principal document of a company.
• It is considered the charter of the company.
• It contains the powers and objectives of the company.
• It can be altered only according to the provisions made in the companies act regarding its alterations.
• Memorandum of Association provides information to the outsiders.

The Memorandum of Association contains the following clauses:
1. Name clause:

• This clause contains the complete name of the company.
• The company can choose any name subject to the following restrictions.
• The name of the company must end with the word limited in the case of a public limited company and with the word private limited in the case of a private limited company.
• The name should not be similar or identical to the name of any other company.
• The name should not contain the word cooperative.
• The name should not convey any connection or link of the company with the government department.

Alteration of name clause: A company can change its name by passing a special resolution and by obtaining approval from the central government.

2. Address clause:

• This clause contains the name of the state in which the registered office of the company is to be located.
• It is necessary because a company gets the registration from that state only.
• A registered office is a place where all the important documents are kept.
• A company must have a registered office when it starts its business activities or within 30 days whichever is earlier.

Alteration of address clause: A company may change its Registered office from

• One place to another place within the same city or town.
• One town or city to another town or city within the same state.
• One state to another state.
• In both these cases, a special resolution is to be passed in General Meeting.

3. Object clause:

• It is the most important clause of the Memorandum of Association.
• It contains the main object of the company.
• This clause defines the scope and limitations of the activities of the company.
• The objects must be defined keeping in mind the following conditions:
• the objects of the company must be legal.
• the objects should not be contrary to the provisions of any law.
• the objects must not be immoral.

Alteration in object clause: In order to alter its object clause, a company must pass a special resolution.

4. Liability clause:

• This clause defines the liability of the members of the company.
• In the case of a company limited by shares, the liability of the members is limited to the extent of the unpaid amount of share capital.
• In the case of a company limited by guarantee, the liability is limited to the amount of guarantee.

Alteration of liability clause: If a company wants to make any alteration in its liability clause then it must pass a unanimous resolution in a meeting.

5. Capital clause:

• The clause specifies the amount of share capital with which a company is to be registered.
• The capital with which a company is registered is called registered capital.
• A company can issue only that number of shares that are authorized by its memorandum.

Alteration of the capital clause: A company can alter its capital clause by passing a special resolution and by obtaining approval from the company law board.

6. The Association clause or Subscription clause:

• A company is an association of persons, who subscribe to its capital.
• For a public company minimum of 7 persons must subscribe to a memorandum by signing it and giving their undertaking that each one shall buy at least one share of a company.
• For a private company minimum of 2 persons must subscribe to the Memorandum of Association by signing it and they also give an undertaking that each one shall buy at least one share of a company.
• Each subscriber has to put his name address and occupation in the presence of at least one witness who shall also put in his details.

Question 2.
Define Memorandum of Association. Explain briefly its features.
Answer:
Definition:
As per section 2(28) of the companies Act 1956 “Memorandum of Association means the Memorandum of Association of a company as originally framed or altered from time to time in pursuance of any previous company laws or of this Act”.
As such this definition does not state exactly the scope, use, and importance of memorandum in a company.

• Lord Cairns observed that – “The memorandum of association is a charter and defines the limits of the powers of a company. The memorandum contains the fundamental conditions upon which alone the company is allowed to incorporate”.
• Lord Macmillan states that – “The purpose of the memorandum is to enable the shareholders, creditors and those who deal with the company to know what is its permitted range of enterprise”.

Meaning:
In simple words, the Memorandum of Association of a company means

• a basic or fundamental primary document of a company.
• a charter or constitution of a company
• no company can be incorporated without the Memorandum of Association.
• It lays down the range of its activities.
• It is a public document and can be inspected by those who deal with the company.

Features of Memorandum of Association:
The following are the features of the Memorandum of Association:

• Memorandum of Association states the nature of business activities to be conducted by the company.
• It informs about the scope of activities of the company.
• It is prepared by promoters of the company.
• It is signed by at least 7 persons in the case of a public company and 2 persons in the case of a private company.
• It is submitted to the registrar of companies for registration.
• All companies must prepare their own Memorandum of Association.
• It defines the relationship between the company and outsiders.
• It is an unalterable charter of the company.
• It is a public document.

Question 3.
What are Articles of Association? Explain briefly its content.
Answer:
Articles of Association contain rules and regulations regarding the management of the company’s internal affairs.

• It defines the powers, duties, and rights of managers, officers, and the board of directors.
• It establishes a relationship between the company and its members.

Contents of Articles of Association:

• The amount of share capital and different classes of shares
• Rights of each type of shareholders
• Procedure for making allotment of shares
• Procedure for issuing share certificates
• Procedure for transfer of shares
• Procedure for forfeiture of shares
• Procedure for reissue of forfeited shares
• Procedure for conducting meetings
• Procedure for appointment and removal of directors
• Duties powers and remuneration of directors
• Procedure for declaration and payment of dividend
• Procedure regarding the keeping of books of accounts and their audit
• Procedure regarding winding up of the company
• Seal of the company

Alteration of Articles of Association:

• A company may change its Article of Association by passing a special resolution.
• A company can alter its Articles of Association in the following ways:
  • by the adoption of a new set of an Articles
  • by deletion of an article
  • by addition or insertion of a new article
  • by substitution of an article
  • by amendment of an article

Question 4.
Define Prospectus. Explain its contents.
Answer:
Definition: “Sec 2(70) of Companies Act, 2013 defines prospectus as any document described or issued as a prospectus and includes 32a Red Herring Prospectus or shelf prospectus or/and notice, circular advertisement or other document inviting offers from the public for the subscription or purchase of any securities of a body corporate”.

Meaning: Prospectus is a document that contains information about various aspects of the company and invests the investors to buy the securities offered by the company.

Contents of Prospectus:
A prospectus must contain the following:
(i) Information and Reports:
As per the Companies Act, the prospectus must contain information such as the name of the issuing company its full registered office address with phone numbers, email address, nature, number and price of securities being offered, details of a lead merchant banker, registrar to the issue, name of the stock exchange where the shares are listed.

• It must also have listed a clause of general risk date of opening and closing of issue etc.
• It must also have reported on financial information.

(ii) Declaration:
There should be a declaration by the company saying that all the provisions of the Companies Act have been complied with and that the prospectus does not contain anything contrary to the provisions of the Companies Act.

(iii) Statement of an Expert:
A prospectus may contain a statement made by an expert like Company Secretary, Chartered Accountant, Cost Accountant, Valuer, Engineer, etc., relating to matters that they have looked into.

• Any other matter as may be prescribed by the Companies Act.
• The expert has to give written consent to issue the prospectus.

(iv) Any other matter as may be prescribed by the Companies Act.

Balbharti Yuvakbharati English 11th Digest Chapter 4.3 Extracts of Drama – (B) An Enemy of the People Notes, Textbook Exercise Important Questions and Answers.

Maharashtra State Board Class 11 English Yuvakbharati Solutions Chapter 4.3 Extracts of Drama – An Enemy of the People

11th English Digest Chapter 4.3 Extracts of Drama – An Enemy of the People Textbook Questions and Answers

Character:

Question 1.
Mayor Peter Stockmann is a contrast to Dr. Thomas Stockmann. Justify.
Answer:
There are lots of good things you can say about Dr. Stockmann, the protagonist of ‘An Enemy of the People’. He is an idealist and a man having great love and care for his family. He is generous with his neighbors and truly cares for his fellow men. Despite his troubles, he wishes to make the world a better place. Most importantly, the doctor is a man of principles willing to fight for justice no matter what it costs.

On the contrary, Mayor Peter Stockmann, his brother is a practical man. He is the antagonist in the play who is less worried about the common men in the city. Throughout the play, the Mayor, Stockmann mercilessly tries to ruin his brother’s life in order to keep the truth from being revealed. He hardly shows any affinity towards his brother. He never shows any feeling of guilt for the fact that he’s totally messing up the life of a family member.

Question 2.
Write the character sketch of Dr. Stockmann.
Answer:
Dr. Stockmann is the brother of the Mayor, Peter Stockmann and the protagonist/hero of the play. He is a practising medical doctor and the medical officer of the town baths. He is an ideal person who has great love for family, fellow citizens and social values. Dr. Stockmann believes strongly in individual freedom and the right of every man to express himself freely.

He is a man of morality and truth and is ready to fight against injustice. He tries to raise his voice against the hypocritical ways of his brother and the members of conservative government. The play revolves around his struggle to give justice to common men of the city. Finally, his fruitless efforts lead him to such misfortune to ruin everything in his profession and life. However, he is not ready to give up his efforts for truth. We see him as a man of patience and strength when he remarks – “The strongest man in the world is he who stands alone!”

3. Read the given extract.

Question (i)
Complete the following table. (Answers are given directly in bold)
Answer:

Question (ii)
Match the column ‘A’ with column ‘B’

Answer:

Plot:

Question 1.
Describe the climax scene in your own words. Write your comments on it.
Answer:
In the final scene, Dr. Stockmann realizes that no one is going to support him to publish the article as no one is ready to take any step against the Mayor. So, Stockmann asks Hovstad to give him back his papers (article). He announces in front of the Mayor that he will read out the article in a mass meeting for everybody to hear the voice of truth. But, the Mayor assures him that no one will lend him a hall in the city to do this.

Billing and Hovstad have also the same opinion. Mrs. Stockmann feels shameful to know the fact that no one is willing to give her husband a hall. She is rather shocked to know that everyone has turned against her husband. Dr. Stockmann is ready to hire a drum to walk on the city streets reading the article. It shows his determination to reveal the truth at any cost. All the family members are ready to stand with Dr. Stockmann in his sincere efforts to purify the society.

Question 2.
Describe in your own words the incident when Hovstad’s real intention to help Dr. Stockmann is exposed.
Answer:
When Dr. stockmann reached Hovstad’s office, he notices the Mayor’s stick and hat and suspects him of hiding in the next room. Dr. Stockmann enquired if Hovstad was going to publish the article in ‘People’s Messenger’. Hovstad answered him that he had to wait for publishing the article.

Hovstad didn’t refuse him but was not ready to publish it. He was under the influence of the Mayor and had personal interest. In addition, both Billing and Aslaksen supported the editor. Dr. Stockmann approached to Aslaksen for requesting him to atleast print the article as a pamphlet. However he denied doing so. Finally, Hovstad refused to print the article saying it would ruin doctor’s family. Here, the Dr. realized Hovstad’s real intention of not printing the article as he was doing everything to protect himself.

3. Write down the consequences of the following occurrences, with the help of the play.

Question (a)
Dr. Thomas Stockmann wants an article exposing social evils to be printed in the newspaper.
Answer:
Dr. Stockmann was an idealist and a lover of truth. When he came across the unhygienic condition of the baths which was a direct threat to the health of the people, he decided to publish the article in the newspaper exposing the Mayor and his cronies. This would directly affect the ruling government to lose their seats. In addition, it would raise public outcry against the social injustice of the Mayor and his stakeholders had to pay a large amount to rectify the issue.

Question (b)
The Mayor, Peter Stockmann persuades Mr. Hovstad and Mr. Billing from printing the article.
Answer:
The Mayor entered Hovstad’s office through the back doors. He didn’t want to let Dr. Stockmann know about his visit to Hovstad. When he met Hovstad and Billing, he told them that Dr. Stockmann is a headstrong man and had some wrong informations about the condition of the baths.

He also praised both Hovstad and Billing and assured them that he had another article to publish which would clear the doubts of all regarding the baths. He indirectly assured them to have their favour in this matter if they supported him. As Dr. Stockmann came to know about the Mayor’s visit to Hovstad’s office to persuade them, he was of the firm opinion that they would not publish his article.

Question (c)
Aslaksen declares that he would not print Dr. Stockmann’s article.
Answer:
As the Mayor told Aslaksen his idea of raising the money from the small tradesmen, Aslaksen thought that Dr. Stockmann’s idea of extensive alternation of the baths was unrealistic. So he decided not to print the article in the newspaper and save the small tradesmen from this unnecessary burden. As Aslaksen denied printing the article, Dr. Stockmann assured them that he would read the article in the mass meeting or raise the issue on the streets of the city. He would anyway expose the ruling government and give justice to common men.

Question (d)
Katherine encourages Dr. Stockmann to proceed in his attempts in the cause of public attempts.
Answer:
When the Mayor and his supporter opposed Dr. Stockmann, Mrs. Stockmann felt shameful that all of them turned against her husband. She put her arm onto his neck and told him that she was ready to stand with him. She encouraged him not to give up his idea and she and her children would help him in his mission. She finally promised to support him till the end. She added that her children Morten, Ejlif and Petra would follow him on the streets of the city.

Setting:

Question 1.
The setting of the act is the office of the newspaper ‘The Herald’. Explain how it is the proper background for the theme of the play.
Answer:
This act is set in the editor’s room at the office of ‘People’s Messenger’. One door leads to the printing office and another to the rest of the offices. There is a large table in the middle covered with books, papers and newspapers and there is a desk at the window. The room is described as ‘dingy and cheerless’.

The setting of the play is appropriate to the theme as the single door opening shows that truth is the only way to be followed by everyone. The dingy and clumsy atmosphere and old furniture urge need of change and renovation in the existing situation. The table covered with books and newspapers is a symbol of chaos and anarchy in the government.

The window stands for a ray of hope in the darkness of injustice. A few closed chairs symbolize time to wind-up prevailing conservative government and bring in new liberal governance. The glass panels stand for transparency and clarity in every section of the government.

Question 2.
Explain the use of the following property in the development of the play.
Answer:
(a) Hat – Hat plays an important role in the development of the play. It stands for the city’s authority, ‘the Mayor’ as it was a part of the official uniform. When Dr. Stockmann put on the hat, he told his brother that the entire city was in his hand. He also added that with that supreme power he would throw him off the existing government. Dr. Stockmann saw the Mayor’s hat in the editor’s room and could realize that the Mayor was hiding in the next room, listening his conversation with the editor. This made him understand the Mayor’s plot of ruining his article.

(b) Stick – The stick at certain instances was a symbol of assertiveness, commitment, new ideas or sticking to the old things. The stick in Dr. Stockmann’s hand suggests his assertiveness, commitment and new ideas in the existing government with the support of everyone. But the stick in the Mayor’s hand, suggests that the whole situation was groomed by him to turn against Dr. Stockmann. The stick in the hand of the Mayor also proves his authority and command over other people.

(c) An envelope containing the letter – The envelope of the letter focuses over the issue of grievance which everyone keeps by hiding a secret. Dr. Stockmann took various efforts to expose the issue but finally Hovstad returned the envelope to him, which suggests how everyone tried to conceal the burning issue. The issue needed immediate attention, but was hidden from the public as the letter was hidden by the envelope.

3. Explain the following statements with reference to the context.

Question (a)
And then, once the ring is broken, we’ll get to work and show the public every day just how incompetent the Mayor is!
Answer:
When both Hovstad and Billing read Dr. Stockmann’s article, they were shocked to know that the article would bring a revolution in the city. Hovstad was ready to publish that article the next day in ‘People’s Messenger’. Billing thought that if the Mayor didn’t like it then it would be a great trouble for them. But Hovstad was ready to take the risk as the problem was acute.

The Mayor would be in trouble from either by the small tradesmen and the householders’ association or by the shareholders in the bath. Anyhow the ring would be a broken and they would get a chance everyday to expose the Mayor through the newspaper and the entire government would go in the hands of the liberals.

Question (b)
From now on The Herald shall be my artillery.
Answer:
Billing, Aslaksen, Hovstad and Dr. Stockmann were discussing about the article. Hovstad was ready to publish the article in the ‘People’s Messenger’ on the next day only. Seeing this Aslaksen agreed with Hovstad to print whatever he wished to print. Dr. Stockmann was of the opinion that it would disrupt on the entire system.

Dr. Stockmann told them that the Mayor and his cronies tried to persuade him by all means but he was determined to publish the article at any cost. Now, Dr. Stockmann considered ‘People’s Messenger’ as his sheet-anchor (additional support)to use it as an artillery to attack on the Mayor with one article after another.

Question (c)
You ought to be ashamed of yourself.
Answer:
Petra visited Hovstad and she told him that she could not translate the novel he had given her. Hovstad asked the reason why she could not translate that book. She answered that the book was unrealistic and she didn’t find it to be read by the common men. At that time, Petra came to know Hovstad’s original intention not printing her father’s article revealing the truth. She thought him as a loyal person but he turned a traitor. So she said that he ought to be ashamed of himself.

Question (d)
Because your father can’t do without my help.
Answer:
Petra did not wish to translate the book as it was unrealistic. When she asked Hovstad about her father’s article, Hovstad told her that he was not going to print the article. She sensed the intention of Hovstad and his behaviour. She did not like his way of looking at the truth. She got upset when Hovstad told her that she was fighting against it as it was only a matter of her father. She became furious as she heard his remarks that her father couldn’t do anything without his help. She got to know the attitude of Hovstad to support the Mayor in the issue.

Question (e)
And it’s by no means the small sacrifice the town will have to make.
Answer:
The Mayor tried hard to persuade Aslaksen and Hovstad that they should not support Dr. Stockmann in his attempts to publish the article as it was not in favour of the small tradesmen and the householders. If the Mayor would go for the extensive alteration of the baths, the town would have to sacrifice. It would incur great expenditure on the municipal.

As a result, they would have to put extra burden of taxes over the tradesmen and commoners. In addition, the baths would be shut down for two years. In such condition, the householders would have to suffer a lot. Eventually, the city would have to be ready to make the sacrifice but Aslaksen was in no mood to put the additional burden over the tradesmen and householders.

Glossary:

1. sledgehammer – mallet or a heavy hammer used for breaking rocks
2. chicken-hearted – cowardly or easily frightened
3. prudent – wise and sensible, shrewd
4. bombard – attack/ assault/ bother
5. bigwigs – VIP or important persons
6. mince – cut/ chop/ crumble
7. salvation – deliverance/ escape/ rescue
8. alderman – an elected member of a city council /next in status to the mayor
9. compositor – a person who arranges the text and pictures of a newspaper or a book before it is printed
10. trembling – shake/shiver/vibrate
11. dingy – dull/colourless
12. hypocrite – fraud/ deceiver/ pretender
13. trivial – unimportant/ little/ worthless
14. subscription – membership fee/ donations/ contribution.

Balbharti Maharashtra State Board 12th Chemistry Textbook Solutions Chapter 10 Halogen Derivatives Textbook Exercise Questions and Answers.

Maharashtra State Board Class 12 Chemistry Solutions Chapter 10 Halogen Derivatives

1. Choose the most correct option.

Question i.
The correct order of increasing reactivity of C-X bond towards nucleophile in the following compounds is

a. I < II < III < IV
b. II < I < III < IV
c. III < IV < II < I
d. IV < III < I < II
Answer:
(d) IV < III < I < II

Question ii.

The major product of the above reaction is,

Answer:
(c)

Question iii.
Which of the following is likely to undergo racemization during alkaline hydrolysis?

Answer:
(a) Only I

Question iv.
The best method for preparation of alkyl fluorides is
a. Finkelstein reaction
b. Swartz reaction
c. Free radical fluorination
d. Sandmeyer’s reaction
Answer:
b. Swartz reaction

Question v.
Identify the chiral molecule from the following.
a. 1-Bromobutane
b. 1,1- Dibromobutane
c. 2,3- Dibromobutane
d. 2-Bromobutane
Answer:
(d) 2-Bromobutane

Question vi.
An alkyl chloride on Wurtz reaction gives 2,2,5,5-tetramethylhexane. The same alkyl chloride on reduction with zinc-copper couple in alchol give hydrocarbon with molecular formula C₅H₁₂. What is the structure of alkyl chloride

Answer:
(a)

Question vii.
Butanenitrile may be prepared by heating
a. propanol with KCN
b. butanol with KCN
c. n-butyl chloride with KCN
d. n-propyl chloride with KCN
Answer:
(d) n-propyl chloride with KCN

Question viii.
Choose the compound from the following that will react fastest by S_N1 mechanism.
a. 1-iodobutane
b. 1-iodopropane
c. 2-iodo-2 methylbutane
d. 2-iodo-3-methylbutane
Answer:
(c) 2-iodo-2 methylbutane

Question ix.

The product ‘B’ in the above reaction sequence is,

Answer:
(d)

Question x.
Which of the following is used as source of dichlorocarbene
a. tetrachloromethane
b. chloroform
c. iodoform
d. DDT
Answer:
(b) chloroform

2. Do as directed.

Question i.
Write IUPAC name of the following compounds

Answer:

Question ii.
Write structure and IUPAC name of the major product in each of the following reaction.


Answer:
Structure and IUPAC name

Question iii.
Identify chiral molecule/s from the following.

Answer:
Chiral molecule

Question iv.
Which one compound from the following pairs would undergo S_N2 faster from the?

Answer:
(1) Sincey is a primary halide it undergoes S_N2 reaction faster than .
(2) Since iodine is a better leaving group than chloride, 1-iodo propane (CH₃CH₂CH₂I) undergoes S_N2 reaction faster than l-chloropropane (CH₃CH₂CH₂CI).

Question v.
Complete the following reactions giving major product.

Answer:

Answer:

Answer:

Answer:

Question vi.
Name the reagent used to bring about the following conversions.
a. Bromoethane to ethoxyethane
b. 1-Chloropropane to 1 nitropropane
c. Ethyl bromide to ethyl isocyanide
d. Chlorobenzene to biphenyl
Answer:

Question vii.
Arrange the following in the increase order of boiling points
a. 1-Bromopropane
b. 2- Bromopropane
c. 1- Bromobutane
d. 1-Bromo-2-methylpropane
Answer:
l-Bromo-2-methylpropane, 2-Bromopropane, 1-Bromopropane, 1-Bromo butane

Question viii.
Match the pairs.

Answer:

3. Give reasons

Question i.
Haloarenes are less reactive than haloalkanes.
Answer:
Haloarenes (Aryl halides) are less reactive than (alkyl halides) haloalkanes due to the following reasons :

(1) Resonance effect : In haloarenes, the electron pairs on halogen atom are in conjugation with 7r-electrons of the benzene ring. The delocalization of these electrons C-Cl bond acquires partial double bond character.

Due to partial double bond character of C-Cl bond in aryl halides, the bond cleavage in haloarene is difficult and are less reactive. On the other hand, in alkyl halides, carbon is attached to chlorine by a single bond and it can be easily broken.

(2) Aryl halides are stabilized by resonance but alkyl halides are not. Hence, the energy of activation for the displacement of halogen from aryl halides is much greater than that of alkyl halides.

(3) Different hybridization state of carbon atom in C-X bond :
(i) In alkyl halides, the carbon of C-X bond is sp³-hybridized with less 5-character and greater bond length of 178 pm, which requires less energy to break the C-X bond.

(ii) In aryl halides, the carbon of C-X bond is sp³-hybridized with more 5-character and shorter bond length which requires more energy to break C-X bond. Therefore, aryl halides are less reactive than alkyl halides.

(iii) Polarity of the C-X bond : In aryl halide C-X bond is less polar than in alkyl halides. Because sp³-hybrid carbon of C-X bond has less tendency to release electrons to the halogen than a sp³-hybrid carbon in alkyl halides. Thus halogen atom in aryl halides cannot be easily displaced by nucleophile.

(2) Aryl halides are extremely less reactive towards nucleophilic substitution reactions.
Answer:
Aryl halides are extremely less reactive towards nucleophilic substitution reaction due to the following reasons : (1) Resonance effect : In haloarenes, the electron pairs on halogen atom are in conjugation with 7r-electrons of the benzene ring. The delocalization of these electrons C-Cl bond acquires partial double bond character.

Due to partial double bond character of C-Cl bond in aryl halides, the bond cleavage in haloarene is difficult and are less reactive towards nucleophilic substitution.

(2) Sp² hybrid state of C : Different hybridization state of carbon atom in C-X bond : In aryl halides, the carbon of C-X bond is sp²-hybridized with more 5-character and shorter bond length of 169 pm which requires more energy to break C-X bond. It is difficult to break a shorter bond than a longer bond, in alkyl chloride (bond length 178 pm) therefore, aryl halides are less reactive towards nucleophilic substitution reaction.

(3) Instability of phenyl cation : In aryl halides, the phenyl cation formed due to self ionisation will not be stabilized by resonance which rules out possibility of S_N1 mechanism. Also backside attack of nucleophile is blocked by the aromatic ring which rules out S_N2 mechanism. Thus cations are not formed and hence aryl halides do not undergo nucleophilic substitution reaction easily.

(4) As any halides are electron rich molecules due to the presence of re-bond, they repel electron rich nucleophilic, attack. Hence, aryl halides are less reactive towards nucleophilic substitution reactions. However, the presence of electron withdrawing groups at o/p position activates the halogen of aryl halides towards substitution.

(3) Aryl halides undergo electrophilic substitution reactions slowly.
Answer:
Aryl halides undergo electrophilic substitution reactions slowly and it can be explained as follows :

(1) Inductive effect : The strongly electronegative halogen atom withdraws the electrons from carbon, atom of the ring, hence aryl halides show reactivity towards electrophilic attack.

(2) Resonance effect : The resonating structures of aryl halides show increase in electron density at ortho and para position, hence it is o, p directing.

The inductive effect and resonance effect compete with each other. The inductive effect is stronger than resonance effect. The reactivity of aryl halides is controlled by stronger inductive effect and o, p orientation is controlled by weaker resonating effect.

The attack of electrophile (Y) on haloarenes at ortho and para positions are more stable due to formation of chloronium ion. The chloronium ion formed is comparatively more stable than other hybrid structures of carbonium ion.

(4) Reactions involving Grignard reagent must be carried out under anhydrous condition.
Answer:
(1) Grignard reagent (R Mg X) is an organometallic compound. The carbon-magnesium bond is highly polar and magnesium halogen bond is in ionic in nature. Grignard reagent is highly reactive.

(2) The reactions of Grignard reagent are carried out in dry conditions because traces of moisture may spoil the reaction and Grignard reagent reacts with water to produce alkane. Hence, reactions involving Grignard reagent must be carried out under anhydrous condition.

(5) Alkyl halides are generally not prepared by free radical halogenation of alkane.
Answer:
(1) Free radical halogenation of alkane gives a mixture of all different possible Monohaloalkanes as well as polyhalogen alkanes.
(2) In this method, by changing the quantity of halogen the desired product can be made to predominate over the other
products. Hence, alkyl halides are generally not prepared by free radical halogenation of alkane.

Question ii.
Alkyl halides though polar are immiscible with water.
Answer:
(1) In alkyl halide, the halogen atom is more electronegative than carbon atom, the C – X bond is polar.
(2) Though alkyl halide is polar, it is insoluble in water because alkyl halide is not able to form hydrogen bonds with water. Attraction between alkyl halide molecule is stronger than attraction between alkyl halide and water.

(2) C-F bond in CH₃F is the strongest bond and C-I bond in CH₃I is the weakest bond. Explain.
Answer:
(1) Methyl fluoride (CH₃F) is highly polar molecule and has the shortest C-F bond length (139 pm) and the strongest C-F bond due to greater overlap of orbitals of the same principal quantum number i.e., overlap of 2sp³ orbital of carbon with 2pz orbital of fluorine.
(2) Methyl iodide (CH₃I) is much less polar and has the longest (C-I) bond length (214 pm) and the weakest C-I bond due to poor overlap of 2sp³ orbital carbon with 5pz orbital of iodine i.e., 2sp³ orbital of carbon cannot penetrate into larger p-orbitals.

(3) The boiling point of alkyl iodide is higher than that of alkyl fluoride.
Answer:
For a given alkyl group, the boiling point increases with increasing atomic mass of the halogen, because magnitude of van der Waals force increases with increase in size and mass of halogen. Therefore, boiling point of alkyl iodide is higher than that of alkyl fluoride.

(4) The boiling point of isopropyl bromide is lower than that of it-propyl bromide.
Answer:
For isomeric alkyl halides (isopropyl bromide and n-propyl bromide), the boiling point decreases as the branching increases, surface area decreases on branching and van der Waals forces decrease, therefore, the boiling point of isopropyl bromide is lower than that of n-propyl bromide.

(5) p-Dichlorobenzene has mp. higher than those of o-and rn-isomers.
Answer:
p-Dichlorobenzene has higher melting point than those of o-and m-isomers. This is because of its symmetrical structure which can easily fits in crystal lattice. As a result intermolecular forces of attraction are stronger and therefore greater energy is required to overcome its lattice energy.

Question iii.
Reactions involving Grignard reagent must be carried out under anhydrous conditions.

Question iv.
Alkyl halides are generally not prepared by free radical halogenation of alkanes.
Answer:
(1) Direct fluorination of alkanes is highly exothermic, explosive and invariably leads to polyfluorination and decomposition of the alkanes. It is difficult to control the reaction.
(2) Direct iodination of alkanes is highly reversible and difficult to carry out.
(3) In direct chlorination and bromination, the reaction is not selective. It can lead to different isomeric monohalogenated alkanes (alkyl halides) as well as polyhalogenated alkanes.
Hence, halogenation of alkanes is not a good method of preparation of alkyl halides.

4. Distinguish between – S_N1 and S_N2 mechanism of substitution reaction ?
Answer:

5. Explain – Optical isomerism in 2-chlorobutane.
Answer:
(1) 2-Chlorobutane contains an asymmetric. carbon atom (the starred carbon atom) which is attached to four different groups, i.e., ethyl (-CH₂ – CH₃), methyl (CH₃), chloro (Cl) and hydrogen (H) groups.

(2) Two different arrangements of these groups around the carbon atom are possible as shown in the figure. Hence, it exists as a pair of enanti¬omers. The two enantiomers are mirror images of each other and are not superimposable.

(3) One of the enantiomers will rotate the plane of plane-polarized light to the left hand side and is called the laevorotatory isomer (/-isomer). The other enantiomer will rotate the plane of plane-polarized light to the right hand side and is called the dextrorotatory isomer (d-isomer).

(4) Equimolar mixture of the d- and the 1-isomers is optically inactive and is called the racemic mixture or the racemate (dl-mixture). The optical inactivity of the racemic mixture is due to external compensation.

6. Convert the following.

Question i.
Propene to propan-1-ol
Answer:

Question ii.
Benzyl alcohol to benzyl cyanide
Answer:

Question iii.
Ethanol to propane nitrile
Answer:

Question iv.
But-1-ene to n-butyl iodide
Answer:

Question v.
2-Chloropropane to propan-1-ol
Answer:

Question vi.
tert-Butyl bromide to isobutyl bromide
Answer:

Question vii.
Aniline to chlorobenzene
Answer:

Question viii.
Propene to 1-nitropropane
Answer:

7. Answer the following

Question i.
HCl is added to a hydrocarbon ‘A’ (C₄H₈) to give a compound ‘B’ which on hydrolysis with aqueous alkali forms tertiary alcohol ‘C’ (C₄H10O). Identify ‘A’ , ‘B’ and ‘C’.
Answer:

Question ii.
Complete the following reaction sequences by writing the structural formulae of the organic compounds ‘A’, ‘B’ and ‘C’.

Answer:

Question iii.
Observe the following and answer the questions given below.

a. Name the type of halogen derivative
b. Comment on the bond length of C-X bond in it
c. Can react by S_N1 mechanism? Justify your answer.
Answer:
a. Vinyl halide
b. C – X bond length shorter in vinyl halide than alkyl halide. Vinyl halide has partial double bond character due to resonance.

In vinyl halide, carbon is sp hybridised. The bond is shorter and stronger and the molecule is more stable.

c. Yes, It reacts by S_N1 mechanism. S_N1 mechanism involves formation of carbocation intermediate. The vinylic carbocation intermediate formed is resonance stabilized, hence S_N1 mechanism is favoured.

Activity :
1. Collect detailed information about Freons and their uses.
2. Collect information about DDT as a persistent pesticide.
Reference books
i. Organic chemistry by Morrison, Boyd, Bhattacharjee, 7^th edition, Pearson
ii. Organic chemistry by Finar, Vol 1, 6^th edition, Pearson

12th Chemistry Digest Chapter 9 Halogen Derivatives Intext Questions and Answers

Use your brain power….. (Textbook page 212)

Question 1.
Write IUPAC names of the following:

Answer:

Question 10.1 : (Textbook page 213)

How will you obtain 1.bromo.1-methylcyclohexane from alkene? Write possible structures of alkene and the reaction involved.

Answer:

Use your brain power ….. (Textbook page 213)

Question 1.
Rewrite the following reaction by filling the blanks:

Answer:

Question 10.2 : (Textbook page 216)

Arrange the following compounds in order of increasing boiling points : bromoform, chloromethane, dibromomethane, bromomethane.
Answer:
The comparative boiling points of halogen derivatives are mainly related with van der Waals forces of attraction which depend upon the molecular size. In the present case all the compounds contain only one carbon. Thus the molecular size depends upon the size of halogen and number of halogen atoms present.

Thus increasing order of boiling point is, CH₃CI < CH₃Br < CH₂Br₂ < CHBr₃

Try this ….. (Textbook page 2016)

Question 1.
(1) Make a three-dimensional model of 2-chlorobutane.
(2) Make another model which is a mirror image of the first model.
(3) Try to superimpose the two models on each other.
(4) Do they superimpose on each other exactly ?
(5) Comment on whether the two models are identical or not.
Answer:
(1) (2) and (3)

(4) Two models are non-superimposable mir ror images of each other called enantiomers.

(5) Two enantiomers are identical. Theyhave the same physical properties (such as melting points, boiling points, densities refractive index). They also have identical chemical properties. The magnitude of their optical rotation is equal but the sign of optical rotation is opposite.

Try this ….. (Textbook page 219)

Question 1.
1. Draw structares of enantiomers of lactic acid using Fischer projection formulae.
2. Draw structures of enantiomers of 2-bromobutane using wedge formula.
Answer:
(1)

(2) Wedge formula : 2-brornobutane

Can you tell? (Textbook page 220)

Question 1.
Alkyl halides, when treated with alcoholic solution of silver nitrite, give nitroalkanes whereas with sodium nitrite they give alkyl nitrites. Explain.
Answer:
Nitrite ion is an ambident nucleophile, which can attack through ‘O’ or ‘N’.

Both nitrogen and oxygen are capable of donating electron pair. C – N bond, being stronger than N – O bond, attack occurs through C atom from alkyl halide forming nitroalkane.

However, sodium nitrite (NaNO₂) is an ionic compound and oxygen is free to donate pair of electrons. Hence, attack occurs through oxygen resulting in the formation of alkyl nitrite.

Use your brain power! (Textbook page 222)

Question 1.
Draw the Fischer projection formulae of two products obtained when compound (A) reacts with OHe by S_N1 mechanis.

Answer:

Question 2.
Draw the Fischer projection formula of the product formed when compound (B) reacts with OHΘ by S_N2 mechanism.

Answer:

Question 10.4 : (Textbook page 223)

Allylic and benzylic halides show high reactivity towards the S_N1 mechanism than other primary alkyl halides. Explain.
Answer:
In allylic and benzylic halide, the carbocation formed undergoes stabilization through the resonance. Hence, allylic and benzylic halides show high reactivity towards the S_N1 reaction. The resonating structures are

Resonance stabilization of allylic carbocation

Resonance stabilization of benzylic carbocation

Question 10.5 : (Textbook page 224)

Which of the following two compounds would react faster by SN2 mechanism and Why?

Answer :
In S_N2 mechanism, a pentacoordinate T.S. is involved. The order of reactivity of alkyl halides towards S_N2 mechanism is.
Primary > Secondary > Tertiary, (due to increasing crowding in T.S. from primary to tertiary halides.
1- Chlorobutane being primary halide will react faster by S_N2 mechanism, than the secondary halide 2- chlorobutane.)

Can you tell? (Textbook page 227)

Question 1.
Conversion of chlorobenzene to phenol by aqueous sodium hydroxide requires high temperature of about 623K and high pressure. Explain.

Answer:
Due to the partial double bond character in chlorobenzene, the bond cleavage in chlorobenzene is difficult and is less reactive. Hence, during the conversion of chlorobenzene to phenol by a question NaOH requires high temperature & high pressure.

Balbharti Maharashtra State Board 12th Chemistry Textbook Solutions Chapter 10 Halogen Derivatives Textbook Exercise Questions and Answers.

Maharashtra State Board Class 12 Chemistry Solutions Chapter 16 Green Chemistry and Nanochemistry

1. Choose the most correct option.

Question i.
The development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own need is known as
a. Continuous development
b. Sustainable development
c. True development
d. Irrational development
Answer:
b. Sustainable development

Question ii.
Which of the following is ϒ-isomer of BHC?
a. DDT
b. lindane
c. Chloroform
d. Chlorobenzene
Answer:
b. lindane

Question iii.
The prefix ‘nano’ comes from
a. French word meaning billion
b. Greek word meaning dwarf
c. Spanish word meaning particle
d. Latin word meaning invisible
Answer:
(b) Greek word meaning dwarf

Question iv.
Which of the following information is given by FTIR technique?
a. Absorption of functional groups
b. Particle size
c. Confirmation of formation of nanoparticles
d. Crystal structure
Answer:
(a) Absorption of functional groups

Question v.
The concept of green chemistry was coined by
a. Born Haber
b. Nario Taniguchi
c. Richard Feynman
d. Paul T. Anastas
Answer:
(d) Paul T. Anastas

2. Answer the following

Question i.
Write the formula to calculate % atom economy.
Answer:

Question ii.
Name the ϒ-isomer of BHC.
Answer:
Lindane

Question iii.
Ridhima wants to detect structure of surface of materials. Name the technique she has to use.
Answer:
Scanning electron microscopy (SEM)

Question iv.
Which nanomaterial is used for tyres of car to increase the life of tyres?
Answer:
Carbon black

Question v.
Name the scientist who discovered scanning tunneling microscope (STM) in 1980.
Answer:
Gerd Binning and Heinrich Rohrer. (Nobel prize 1986)

Question vi.
1 nm = …..m?
Answer:
1 nm = 10⁹ m

3. Answer the following

Question i.
Define
(i) Green chemistry
(ii) sustainable development.
Answer:
(i) Green chemistry : Green chemistry is the use of chemistry for pollution prevention and it designs the use of chemical products and processes that reduce or eliminate the use or generation of hazardous substances.

(ii) Sustainable development : Sustainable development is the development that meets the needs of the present, without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.

Question ii.
Explain the role of green chemistry.
Answer:
When the waste and pollution that society generates exceeds the Earth’s natural capacity for dealing with it, the green chemistry approach plays an important role.

• To reduce or eliminate the use or generation of hazardous substances in the design, manufacture and use of chemical products by promoting innovative chemical technologies.
• Capital expenditure required for prevention of pollution is controlled by the use of green chemistry.
• Since green chemistry incorporates and promotes pollution prevention practices in the manufacturing process of chemicals it helps industrial ecology.
• Green chemistry helps to protect the presence of ozone in the stratosphere. Ozone layer is essential for the survival of life on the earth.
• Global warming (Greenhouse effect) is controlled by green chemistry. At present it is the beginning of the green revolution.
• It is an exciting time with the new challenges for chemist involved with the discovery, manufacturing and use of chemicals. Green chemistry helps us to save environment and save earth, which is important for our future.

Question iii.
Give the full form (long form) of the names for the following instruments.
a. XRD
b. TEM.
c. STM
d. FTIR
e. SEM
Answer:
a. XRD-X-ray diffraction
b. TEM-Tunneling Electron Microscope
c. STM – Scanning Tunneling Microscope
d. FTIR-Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscope
e. SEM-Scanning Electron Microscope

Question iv.
Define the following terms :
a. Nanoscience
b. Nanotechnology
c. Nanomaterial
d. Nanochemistry
Answer:
a. Nanoscience : The study of phenomena and manipulation of materials at atomic, molecular and macromolecular scales where properties differ significantly from those at a larger scale is called nanoscience.

b. Nanotechnology : The design, characterization, production and application of structures, device and system by controlling shape and size at nanometer scale is called nanotechnology.

c. Nanomaterial : A material having structural components with at least one dimension in the nanometer scale that is 1 -100 nm is called the nanomaterial. Nanomaterials are larger than single atoms but smaller than bacteria and cells.

d. Nanochemistry : It is the combination of chemistry and nanoscience. It deals with designing and synthesis of materials of nanoscale with different size and shape, structure and composition and their organization into functional architectures.

Question v.
How nanotechnology plays an important role in water purification techniques?
Answer:

1. Water purification is an important issue as 1.1 billion people do not have access to improved water supply. Water contains water bom pathogens like viruses, bacteria.
2. Silver nanoparticles are highly effective bacterial disinfectant to remove E. Coli from water. Hence, filter materials coated with silver nanoparticles is used to clean water.
3. Silver nanoparticles (AgNps) is a cost effective alternative technology (for e.g. water purifier).

Question vi.
Which nanomaterial is used in sunscreen lotion? Write its use.
Answer:
Zinc oxide (ZnO) and Titanium dioxide (TiO₂) nanoparticles are used sunscreen lotions. The chemicals protect the skin against harmful u.v (ultraviolet) rays by absorbing or reflecting the light and prevent the skin from damage.

Question vii.
How will you illustrate the use of safer solvent and auxiliaries?
Answer:

• Use of safer solvents and auxiliaries – is a principle of green chemistry it states that safer solvent like water, supercritical CO₂ should be used in place of volatile halogenated organic solvents, like CH₂CI₂, CHCI₃, CCI₄ for chemical synthesis and other purposes.
• Solvents dissolve solutes and form solutions, they facilitate many reactions. Water is a safer benign solvent while solvents like dichloromethane (CH₂CI₂), chloroform (CHCI₃) etc are hazardous.
• Use of toxic solvents affect millions of workers every year and have implications for consumers and the environment. A large amount of waste is created by their use and they also have huge environmental and health impacts.
• Finding safer solvents or designing processes which are solvent free is the best way to improve the process and the product.

Question viii.
Define catalyst. Give two examples.
Answer:
A substance which speeds up the rate of a reaction without itself being changed chemically in the reaction is called a catalyst. It helps to increase selectivity, minimise waste and reduce reaction time and energy demands. For example : Hydrogenation of oil the catalyst used are platinum or palladium, Raney nickel.

4. Answer the following

Question i.
Explain any three principles of green chemistry.
Answer:

1. Environment protection is the prime concern which has lead to the need for designing chemicals that degrade and can be discarded easily. These chemicals and their degradation products should be non-toxic, non-bioaccumulative or should not be environmentally persistent.
2. This principle aims at waste product being automatically degradable to clean the environment. Thus the preference for biodegradable polymers and pesticides.
3. To make the separation and segregation easier for the consumer an international plastic recycle mark is printed on larger items.
4. There is a dire need to develop improvised analytical methods to allow for real time, in process monitoring and control prior to the formation of hazardous substances.
5. It is very much important for the chemical industries and nuclear reactors to develop or modify analytical
   methodologies so that continuous monitoring of the manufacturing and processing unit is possible.
6. It is needed to develop chemical processes that are safer and minimize the risk of accidents. It is important to select chemical substances used in a chemical reaction in such a way that they can minimize the occurrence of chemical accidents, explosions, fire and emissions.
7. For example : Chemical process that works with the gaseous substances can lead to relatively higher possibilities of accidents including explosion as compared to the system working with nonvolatile liquid and solid substances.

Question ii.
Explain atom economy with suitable example.
Answer:
(1) Atom economy is a measure of the amount of atoms from the starting material that are present in the final product at the end of a chemical process. Good atom economy means most of the atoms of the reactants are incorporated in the desired products. Only small amount of waste is produced, hence lesser problem of waste disposal.

(2) The atom economy of a process can be calculated using the following formula.

The atom economy of the above reacijon is less than 50% and waste produced is higher.

Question iii.
How will you illustrate the principle, minimization of steps?
Answer:
(1) The technique of protecting or blocking group is commonly used in organic synthesis. Finally on completion of reaction deprotection of the group is required. This leads to unnecessary increase in the number of steps and decreased atom economy.

(2) The green chemistry principle aims to develop processes to avoid necessary steps i.e. (minimization of steps). When biocatalyst is used very often there is no need for protection of selective group. For example, conversion of m-hydroxyl benzaldehyde to m-hydroxybenzoic acid.

Question iv.
What do you mean by sol and gel? Describe the sol-gel method of preparation for nanoparticles.
Answer:
(1) Sol : Sols are dispersions of colloidal particles in a liquid. Colloids are solid particles with diameter of 1-100 nm.

(2) Gel : A gel is interconnected rigid network with pores of submicrometer dimensions and polymeric chains whose average length is greater than a micrometer.

(3) Sol-gel Process : A sol-gel process is an inorganic polymerisation reaction. It is generally carried out at room temperature, it includes four steps : Hydrolysis, polycondensation, drying and thermal decomposition. This method is widely used to prepare oxide materials.

The reactions involved in the sol-gel process are as follows :
MOR + H₂O → MOH + ROH (hydrolysis)
metal alkoxide
MOH + ROM → M-O-M + ROH (condensation)

• Formation of different stable solution of the alkoxide or solvated metal precursor.
• Gelation involves the formation of an oxide or alcohol-bridged network (gel) by a polycondensation reaction.
• Aging of the gel means during that period gel transforms into a solid mass.
• Drying of the gel involves removal of water and other volatile liquids from the gel network.
• Dehydration is achieved when the material is heated at temperatures up to 800°C.

Question v.
Which flower is an example of self-cleaning?
Answer:

• Lotus is an example of self cleansing.
• Nanostructures on the lotus plant leaves are super hydrophobic, they repel water which carries dirt as it rolls off.
  Thus though lotus plant (Nelumbonucifera) grows in muddy water, its leaves always appear clean.

Activity :
Collect information about the application of nanochemistry in cosmetics and pharmaceuticals

12th Chemistry Digest Chapter 16 Green Chemistry and Nanochemistry Intext Questions and Answers

Do you know? (Textbook page 343)

Question 1.
Does plastic packaging impact the food they wrap ?
Answer:
Phthalates leach into food through packaging so you should avoid microwaving food or drinks in plastic and not use plastic cling wrap and store your food in glass container whenever possible. Try to avoid prepackaging, processed food so that you will reduce exposure to the harmful effects of plastic.

Used Catalyst (Textbook page 342)

Question 18.
Complete the chart:

Answer:

Balbharti Maharashtra State Board Class 11 Secretarial Practice Solutions Chapter 2 Joint Stock Company Textbook Exercise Questions and Answers.

Maharashtra State Board Class 11 Secretarial Practice Solutions Chapter 2 Joint Stock Company

1A. Select the correct answer from the options given below and rewrite the statements.

Question 1.
A sole proprietorship has ______________ owner/owners.
(a) one
(b) two
(c) five
Answer:
(a) one

Question 2.
The head of Joint Hindu Family Business is called as ______________
(a) Proprietor
(b) Director
(c) Karta
Answer:
(c) Karta

Question 3.
Indian Partnership Act was passed in the year ______________
(a) 1923
(b) 1932
(c) 1956
Answer:
(b) 1932

Question 4.
The members of Hindu Undivided Family Business are called ______________
(a) Karta
(b) partners
(c) co-parceners
Answer:
(c) co-parceners

Question 5.
The liability of shareholders in the public limited joint stock company is ______________
(a) Limited
(b) Unlimited
(c) Collective
Answer:
(a) Limited

Question 6.
The minimum number of members required for a co-operative society is ______________
(a) 10
(b) 20
(c) 50
Answer:
(a) 10

Question 7.
The ______________ is/are elected representative of shareholders who manage affairs of company.
(a) Secretary
(b) Directors
(c) Auditors
Answer:
(b) Directors

Question 8.
State Bank of India is the example of ______________ Company.
(a) Chartered
(b) Statutory
(c) Foreign
Answer:
(b) Statutory

1B. Match the pairs.

Question 1.

Answer:

Question 2.

Answer:

1C. Write a word or a term or a phrase that can substitute each of the following statements.

Question 1.
The owner is the sole manager and decision-maker of his business.
Answer:
Sole Trader

Question 2.
The senior-most family member of Joint Hindu Family Business.
Answer:
Karta

Question 3.
The members of Joint Hindu Family Business.
Answer:
Co-parceners

Question 4.
An artificial person created by law.
Answer:
Joint Stock company

Question 5.
The persons who have entered into an agreement of partnership.
Answer:
Partners

Question 6.
A person who purchases shares of a Joint Stock Company.
Answer:
Shareholder

Question 7.
The official signature of Joint Stock Company.
Answer:
Common seal

Question 8.
Name a company that is created by special legislation of parliament or state assembly.
Answer:
Statutory company

1D. State whether the following statements are True or False.

Question 1.
A Joint Stock company is a voluntary association of persons.
Answer:
True

Question 2.
A Joint Stock company is a formal form of business organization.
Answer:
True

Question 3.
Registration of a Joint Stock company is compulsory.
Answer:
True

Question 4.
A Joint Stock company is a natural person.
Answer:
False

Question 5.
A Joint Stock company does not enjoy independent legal status.
Answer:
False

Question 6.
The liability of shareholders of a public limited company is limited.
Answer:
True

Question 7.
A Joint Stock company has a long and stable life.
Answer:
True

Question 8.
There is no separation of ownership and management in a Joint Stock company.
Answer:
False

Question 9.
Board of Directors manages the Company.
Answer:
True

1E. Complete the sentences.

Question 1.
A company is a creation of law, hence it is called as ______________
Answer:
Legal Person or Artificial Person

Question 2.
A company which is incorporated under a Special Act is called as ______________
Answer:
Statutory Company

Question 3.
A company which has only one member is called as ______________
Answer:
One Person Company

Question 4.
A listed company must follow the provisions of Companies Act and ______________
Answer:
SEBI Guidelines

1F. Select the correct option from the bracket.

Question 1.

(Foreign Company, Minimum 7 members, Maximum 200 members, Co-operative society, Unlimited Liability Company)
Answer:

1G. Answer in one sentence.

Question 1.
How many member/s can be there in a One Person company?
Answer:
There can be only one member in a Person Company.

Question 2.
What is a Holding company?
Answer:
A company that holds more than one-half of the total share capital of another company or carries the power to appoint or remove all or majority of directors of another company is called a Holding Company.

Question 3.
What is meant by a Foreign company?
Answer:
A company incorporated outside India, but conducting business in India, called a foreign company.

1H. Correct the underlined word and rewrite the following sentences.

Question 1.
Statutory companies are registered under the Companies Act.
Answer:
Statutory companies are registered under Special Act passed by Central or State legislative.

Question 2.
A Subsidiary company holds more than half of the total share capital of another company.
Answer:
A Holding company holds more than half of the total share capital of another company.

Question 3.
A private company must have a minimum of 7 Members.
Answer:
A private company must have a minimum of 2 members.

Question 4.
A public company can have a maximum of 200 members.
Answer:
A private company can have a maximum of 200 members.

2. Explain the following terms/concepts.

Question 1.
Dormant company
Answer:

• It is registered for future projects.
• It has not made any accounting transactions in the last two years.
• It has not submitted a financial statement or annual report in the last two years.
• Section 455 of Companies Act, 2013 is applicable to a Dormant Company.

Question 2.
Holding company
Answer:

• A company holds more than half of the share capital of another company.
• Such a company may have the power to appoint a director of another company.
• It has the power to remove directors of another company.

Question 3.
Foreign company
Answer:

• A company that is incorporated/registered outside India.
• It may conduct business in India.
• Bata India Limited, Nestle India Limited, Whirlpool Corporation, etc. are examples of foreign companies.

Question 4.
Company limited by guarantee
Answer:

• Such a company is formed under Section 2(21).
• This company may or may not have share capital.
• Member promises to pay a fixed amount at the time of liquidation.
• This fixed amount is mentioned in the Memorandum of Association.
• This amount is used to pay debts and liabilities.

Question 5.
Associate company
Answer:

• The firm over which another firm exercises control, which is less than the degree of control exercised over a subsidiary company.
• A company in which another company has a significant influence.
• It means control of at least 20% of total capital or of decisions under an agreement.

Question 6.
Limited Liability
Answer:

• The liability of shareholders is limited in Joint Stock Company.
• Personal property cannot be used to pay the debts of the company.
• Liability is limited to the unpaid part of the face value of shares held by a shareholder.
• Shareholders are not liable to pay debts and liability of the company.

Question 7.
Perpetual Succession
Answer:

• It means continuous existence.
• Joint Stock Company has perpetual succession.
• The life/existence of the company is not affected by the death, insolvency, or retirement of any member or director.
• The company enjoys long and stable life.

Question 8.
Listed company
Answer:

• It means a company that has any of its securities listed on any recognized stock exchange.
• A public company may be a listed or unlisted company.
• The listed company needs to follow the guidelines of SEBI.
• They have to follow the Companies Act.

Question 9.
One Person company
Answer:

• In this company, only one person is a member.
• It should follow all rules and formalities of a private company.
• It is conducted by one promoter with limited liability.
• Such a business organization is better as compared to a sole trader.

Question 10.
Government company
Answer:

• More than 51% of paid-up share capital is held by the Government.
• The government may be Central or State Government or partly Central Government and partly one or more State Government.
• It may be a subsidiary company of a Government company.
• It may be a Private company or a Public company.

3. Study the following case/situation and express your opinion.

1. Two promoters got ‘Super Drinks Pvt. Ltd.’ incorporated on 18th January 2018. The company has 100 members as of 31st March 2019.

Question (a).
What is the maximum number of members this company can have?
Answer:
The maximum number of members for this company is 200 because this is a private company.

Question (b).
Can this company invite the general public to subscribe for shares?
Answer:
This company cannot invite the general public to subscribe for shares.

Question (c).
Can the shareholders of the company sell its shares to outsiders?
Answer:
Being a private company, there are restrictions to shareholders to sell these to outsiders.

2. Kali VFX Ltd. was incorporated on 1st January 2019 as a public limited company.

Question (a).
How many minimum numbers of members must be there in this company?
Answer:
A minimum number of members must be 7 in this company because it is a Public company.

Question (b).
Can the members of this company sell their shares to outsiders?
Answer:
Being a Public company member can sell its shares to outsiders. There is no restriction on the transferability of shares.

Question (c).
How many maximum numbers of members can this company have?
Answer:
In a public company, there is no limit for the number of maximum members as it is a Public company.

3. Sunset Printers Pvt. Ltd. was incorporated on 5th December 2015 as per the provisions of the Companies Act, 2013. Mr. Manoj was the only subscriber to the Memorandum and Articles of Association and he was also the only member of the company.

Question (a).
Is this company a One Person company?
Answer:
Yes, this is a One Person company, because only one/single person is a member of this company.

Question (b).
Will the liability of Mr. Manoj be limited or unlimited?
Answer:
The liability of Mr. Manoj is limited.

Question (c).
Will the company close down on the death, insanity, or insolvency of Mr. Manoj?
Answer:
No, Company will not close down on the death, insanity, or insolvency of Mr. Manoj.

4. On 1st January 2018 Mr. John bought 100 shares of TIPS Paints Ltd. The face value of each share was ₹ 10. Mr. John paid the full amount of ₹ 1,000. In December 2018 the company suffered a loss of ₹ 10 crores.

Question (a).
Can the company ask Mr. John to pay any further money to the company?
Answer:
No, Company cannot ask Mr. John for further payment, because, he has already paid the full amount of face value.

Question (b).
Which feature of a Joint Stock company is referred to in this example?
Answer:
‘Limited Liability is a feature, which is referred to in this example.

Question (c).
Explain the feature briefly.
Answer:
As per ‘Limited liability’ member of the company is not liable to debts of the company. Member is liable only up to the unpaid amount of share capital. Members’ personal property will not be used for the liability of a company.

4. Distinguish between the following.

Question 1.
Sole Trading Concern and Joint Hindu Family Business.
Answer:

Question 2.
Sole Trading Concern and Partnership Firm
Answer:

Question 3.
Partnership Firm and Joint Stock Company
Answer:

Question 4.
Joint Stock Company and Co-operative Society
Answer:

Question 5.
Private Company and Public Company
Answer:

5. Answer in brief.

Question 1.
How is LLP different from a partnership firm?
Answer:
LLP and Partnership Firm both look alike but are separate and have separate features:

• Legal base: Limited Liability Partnership is based on “Limited Liability Partnership Act, 2008” and regular partnership is based on “Partnership Act, 1932”.
• A number of partners: In a Partnership firm, a minimum of two partners and a maximum of fifty partners are allowed and in LLP minimum of two partners and a maximum no limit.
• Liability: In LLP, partners have limited liability while in a partnership firm, partners have unlimited liability.
• Transfer of ownership: There is no restriction on joining and leaving the LLP, but in a partnership firm, partners cannot transfer their shares without the permission of other partners.

Question 2.
Explain the different types of companies on the basis of the liabilities of members.
Answer:
There are three types of companies on the basis of liabilities of members which are explained as under:
(i) Companies Limited by Shares: Such companies are formed as per Section 2(22) of the Companies Act, 2013. Such companies have to share capital and their members have limited liabilities up to unpaid part of the face value of shares held by them. At the time of winding up of the company, the personal property of shareholders is not used. They are liable only for the unpaid part of the number of shares purchased.

(ii) Company Limited by Guarantee: As per Section 2(21), such companies may or may not have share capital. Every Member promises to pay a specific amount for liabilities and debts of the company at the time of liquidation. Such amount is mentioned in Memorandum. Member simply gives guarantee and carries a specific amount of liability. Generally, such companies work for the promotion of sports, art, culture, charity, etc.

(iii) Unlimited Liability Company: As per section 2(92), members of these companies have unlimited liability. Members are fully liable to liabilities and debts of the company. It may be a private, public, or one-person company.

Question 3.
What are holding and subsidiary companies?
Answer:
Holding company:

• A company holds more than half of the share capital of another company.
• Such a company may have the power to appoint a director of another company.
• It has the power to remove directors of another company.

Subsidiary company:

• Such companies are controlled by holding companies.
• Holding company purchases more than half of the total share capital of the Subsidiary company.
• Holding Company has the power to appoint or remove all or a majority of its directors.
• A subsidiary company is just the opposite of a Holding company.

6. Justify the following statements.

Question 1.
Registration of Joint Stock Company is compulsory.
Answer:

• In India, the Joint Stock Companies are governed by the Companies Act, 2013.
• Every company has to be registered under the Companies Act, 2013.
• Registration gives birth to a company.
• On registration, the company gets a separate legal entity/identity.
• Without registration, no company can come into existence.
• After getting a registration certificate, it becomes a corporate body.
• So, the registration of a Joint Stock Company is compulsory and not optional.
• Thus, registration of a Joint Stock Company is compulsory.

Question 2.
A Joint Stock Company is an artificial person.
Answer:

• A Joint Stock Company is an incorporated association, which is an artificial person created by law, having a separate name, a separate legal entity, and perpetual succession.
• It is an artificial person because it is the creation of law.
• It does not have a physical existence but has legal existence.
• It enjoys certain rights and also conducts business like any human being.
• A company is an artificial person because it is not developed by the process of a natural person.
• It is the law of the land that gives birth to a company, hence, it is an artificial but legal person.
• A company has a distinct name and a common seal.
• It can make contracts, appoint staff, borrow money, open an account in the bank, acquire assets and conduct other business activities by its office bearers and staff.
• It can sue and be sued by others. So, a Joint Stock Company is an artificial person, created by law.
• Thus, a Joint Stock Company is an artificial person.

Question 3.
The liability of shareholders of the company is limited.
Answer:

• The liability of shareholders of the company is always limited.
• It is limited to the extent of the unpaid part of the face value of the shares held by them. Personal property of shareholders will not be taken or sold to pay the creditors or loan of the company.
• Shareholders are not concerned with other liabilities of the company.
• eg. If a shareholder has bought 100 shares of ₹ 10/- each, then he is liable only for ₹ 1000/- and not more.
• Thus, the liability of shareholders of a Joint Stock Company is limited.

Question 4.
The ownership and management are separated in Joint Stock Company.
Answer:

• A Joint Stock Company is a voluntary association of individuals for profit, having its capital divided into transferable shares, the ownership of which is the condition of membership.
• The members of a joint-stock company are many and they are scattered all over.
• It becomes very difficult for them to manage the business of the company.
• Lots of time may be wasted as all the shareholders are not able to come together at one place at the same time and as a result, there is a delay in decision making.
• To avoid these problems, the shareholders elect their representatives known as “Board of Directors”.
• The Board of Directors handles the business of the company on behalf of the shareholders.
• But, all important decisions pertaining to the company are not taken without the consent of all the shareholders.
• The owners of the company are the shareholders.
• The managers of the company are the Board of Directors.
• So, there is a separation of ownership and management in Joint Stock Company.
• Thus, the ownership and management are separated in Joint Stock Company.

Question 5.
The Joint Stock Company collects huge capital from the public.
Answer:

• A company requires large capital to carry out its activities.
• This capital is being collected from the public as it is not possible for an individual to contribute such a big amount.
• A company issues shares, debentures, bonds and also accepts public deposits for raising its capital.
• A company can also take loans from banks and financial institutions.
• a Large number of members bring in a large number of funds that can be profitably invested in the expansion of the company.
• So, for a large-scale business, large capital is collected by the Joint Stock Company.
• Thus, the Joint Stock Company collects huge capital from the public.

Question 6.
There is more Government control and supervision over the working of a Joint Stock company.
Answer:

• A Joint Stock Company is controlled and supervised by the Government.
• A company has to follow numerous provisions of the Companies Act and other Acts.
• The company has to follow all rules and regulations of the Government.
• If any of the legal provisions are violated, various charges are levied on the company.
• Government control protects the financial interest of a large number of investors.
• If any of the business of a company is carried out illegally, strict actions are taken by the Government authorities on the working of the company.
• So, there is more Government control and supervision over the working of Joint Stock companies.

7. Answer the following questions.

Question 1.
State the features of Sole Trading Concern.
Answer:
Features of Sole Trading Concern.

• No separate law: There is no separate law or act for sole trading concern. But, while conducting the business, it should follow routine laws which are applicable.
• Ownership: In a sole trading concern, only one person is the ail owner.
• Capital: Capital is contributed by the owner and an owner is a single person. Hence, capital is collected by a single person. So the size of capital is very small.
• Division of earnings: A sole trader is a single person, so there is no division of profit or loss. All profit is enjoyed by the owner and also bears all the losses of the business.
• Management: The business activities of Sole Trading Concern are managed by a single owner. Such an owner is a decision-maker.
• Secrecy: Sole Trader can ensure maximum business secrecy. The owner is not required to discuss the business matter with any outsider. Thus, maximum secrecy can be maintained.
• Liability: The liability of Sole Trader is unlimited. The owner’s personal property can be used for debts and liabilities of the business concern.
• Legal Status: Sole Trading Concern does not enjoy a separate legal status. There is no business registration by law. So, it does not have legal status.
• Suitable for small-scale business: Sole Trading Concern is suitable for small-scale business activity. Sole Traders can collect limited capital and thus cannot undertake large-scale business activity.
• Government control: There is no much government control over such type of business.

Question 2.
State the features of Joint Hindu Family Business.
Answer:
Features of Joint Hindu Family Business:

• Membership: Membership of Joint Hindu Family business is possible only by birth. Every child born in a family is considered a member of the Joint Hindu Family business.
• Karta: ‘Karta’is the head of the family. Generally, a senior person of the family plays the role of Karta in the Joint Hindu Family business.
• Co-parceners: ‘Co-parceners’ are the members of the family, rather than ‘Karta’. They play a supporting role in the family and have limited liability.
• The number of members: There is no limit on the minimum and maximum number of members.
• Liability: Liability of ‘Karta’ is unlimited, while the liability of ‘Co-parceners’ is limited in Joint Hindu Family business.
• Decision making: Being ahead of a Joint Hindu Family business, ‘Karta’ is the sole decision-maker. Thus, quick decision-making is possible in such type of business.
• Management: ‘Karta’ is head of Joint Hindu Family business activity, so such person is considered as manager, controller, and co-ordinator of business.
• Profit-sharing: The profit-sharing ratio keeps on changing in the Joint Hindu Family business. This ratio depends on the number of family members, which keeps on changing on birth and death in a family member.
• Legal Act: Joint Hindu Family business is governed by Hindu Succession Act, 1956. But, it does not need any registration. There is less government control on the Joint Hindu Family business.

Question 3.
State the features of the Partnership Firm.
Answer:
Features of Partnership Firm:

• Meaning: The business organization, which is owned, managed, and controlled by two or more persons under Partnership Act, 1932 is called a partnership firm.
• Registration: As per Partnership Act, 1932, registration is not compulsory. But, registration has been made compulsory in the state of Maharashtra.
• A number of members: The minimum number of members is 2 partners and a maximum of 50 partners for general business.
• Capital: The capital of a partnership firm is contributed by all the partners.
• Liability: In a partnership firm, the liability of partners is unlimited and is joint and several. The personal property of partners can be used to pay off the liabilities and debts of the partnership firm.
• Legal status: Partners of partnership firm enter into business with an agreement which is made as per Partnership Act, 1932. But, such firms do not enjoy separate legal statuses.
• Transfer of shares: In a partnership firm, partners cannot transfer their shares without the permission of other partners.
• Management: The business of a partnership firm is conducted, managed and controlled by all the partners. They are the joint owners and joint managers of a firm.
• No separation of ownership and management: As per the Partnership Act, 1932 all partners of the firm are owners, and as such it is the responsibility of all the partners to manage the business. So there is no separation of ownership and management.
• Profit-sharing: Being an owner of a firm, all the partners share profits and losses as per the ratio which is mentioned in the partnership deed.

Question 4.
State the features of Co-operative Society.
Answer:
Features of Co-operative Society:
(i) Meaning: Co-operative society is a voluntary association of persons, formed to provide services and economic welfare to its members.
(ii) Registration: The registration of a Co-operative society is compulsory in the state of Maharashtra, under Maharashtra State Co-operative Societies Act, 1960.
(iii) Membership: Membership of a Cooperative Society is open to all. Any person of sound mind can enter in Cooperative society.
(iv) Number of Membership: Minimum ten members are required and maximum there is no limit to join Co-operative Society.
(v) Liability: Members of the Cooperative society carry limited liability. The personal property of a member cannot be used for liability or debts of the society.
(vi) Aim of society: Generally, another form of business organization has its aim as profit. But, a Cooperative society has no aim of maximization of profit. They are formed with an aim of providing service and economic welfare to the members.
(vii) Legal status: Co-Operative societies are formed under a specific act, so they enjoy independent legal status different from its members.
(viii) Management: Management in a Cooperative society is based on the principle of ‘Democracy’. Shareholder/member enjoys equal voting right to decide management authority. ‘One Person One Vote’ principle is followed by the Cooperative society.
(ix) Government control: There is strict Government control and supervision on working of Co-operative society. Generally, the state Government controls the activity of Cooperative society.

Question 5.
State the features of a Limited Liability Partnership.
Answer:
Features of Limited Liability Partnership (LLP):

• Meaning: It is a combination of features of a partnership firm and a Joint Stock company. The liability of all partners in such a partnership firm is limited.
• Legal entity: Limited Liability Partnership has a separate legal entity. Partners and Limited Liability Partnership are distinct from each other i.e. it is a body corporate.
• the number of members: In a Limited Liability Partnership, a minimum of two partners are required. There is no limit on a maximum number of partners in a Limited Liability partnership.
• Capital: The capital of a business organization is collected from all partners. There is no requirement for minimum capital contribution.
• Business operation: It is simple to form and easy to operate.
• (vi) Liability: Limited Liability Partnership carry limited liability. The liability of each partner is limited to his share as written in the agreement.
• Cost of formation: As compared to a Joint Stock Company, the formation of a Limited Liability Partnership is very simple and easy. It has a low cost of formation.
• Transfer of share: In a Limited Liability Partnership, there is no restriction on the transfer of ownership/shares, except to follow rules of the partnership agreement, In short, there is less restriction on joining and leaving the Limited Liability Partnership.
• In a Limited Liability Partnership, double taxation is avoided and there is no tax on share in profit.

Question 6.
Define Joint Stock Company and explain its features.
Answer:
Definition of Joint Stock Company:

• As per Section 2(20) of the Companies Act, 2013: “Company means a company incorporated under this Act or under any previous company law”.
• According to Prof. H.L.Haney: “A Joint Stock Company is a voluntary association of individuals for profit, having its capital divided into transferable shares, the ownership of which is the condition of membership”.

Features of Joint Stock Company:
(i) Voluntary association: It is a voluntary association of individuals. Membership is open to all. Any person can join and leave the company subject to rules of the Articles of Association of the company.

(ii) Incorporated Association: Company is an association of persons formed and incorporated/registered under the Companies Act, 2013. Registration is compulsory. After incorporation, an association obtains the status of a Joint Stock Company.

(iii) Separate legal entity: The company enjoy a separate legal status different from its members and directors. Though the members are the owners, yet they are not liable for the actions of the company.

(iv) Artificial person: A company is a creation of law. A company does not have a physical existence, but it can conduct various activities like a human being.
E.g. enter into a contract, open a bank account, purchase or sell assets, appoint employees, etc. The company has corporate existence.

(v) Perpetual succession: A company has a perpetual succession means continuous existence. The company can enjoy a long and stable life. It is not affected by the death, insolvency, or retirement of any member.

(vi) Common seal: A company has a common seal of its own and all its activities are conducted under this seal. A company is an artificial person, its seal is the substitute for its signature. This seal is a name or any other recognition of a company.

(vii) Limited liability: The liability of members/shareholders of the company is limited. It is limited up to the unpaid part of the face value of shares held by shareholders. The personal property of a shareholder cannot be used for repayment of debts of the company.

(viii) Separation of ownership and management: As per the Companies Act, shareholders are the owners of the company, but they are unable to manage the day-to-day business activities as they are large in number, scattered and they keep on transferring shares. So, they appoint directors for management purposes. Thus, ownership and management are separate in the case of a Joint Stock Company.

(ix) Transferability of shares: The shares of a public company are transferable. They can be transferred freely whenever shareholder desires to sell. Shares of private companies are not freely transferable.

(x) Number of members: A company is owned by a large number of members. For private companies, minimum of 2 members and a maximum of 200 members are required and for the public company a minimum of 7 members and a maximum no limit.

(xi) Capital: Due to a large number of members, a huge amount of capital can be collected by the company in the form of shares, debentures, bonds, public deposits, etc. It can also borrow loans from banks and financial institutions.

(xii) Government control: There is strict control and supervision by the Government on the working of the company. The company has to follow the regulations and file Profit and Loss Account, Balance Sheet, and other financial statements with the Registrar. It should maintain all required books of accounts.

Question 7.
Define a ‘company’. Explain the types of companies on the basis of the liability of members.
Answer:
Definition of Joint Stock Company:

• As per Section 2(20) of the Companies Act, 2013: “Company means a company incorporated under this Act or under any previous company law’.
• According to Prof. H.L.Haney: “A Joint Stock company is a voluntary association of individuals for profit, having it’s capital divided into transferable shares, the ownership of which is the condition of membership”.

Types of Companies on the basis of liability of members:
(i) Companies Limited by Shares: Such companies are formed as per Section 2(22) of the Companies Act, 2013. Such companies have to share capital and their members have limited liabilities up to unpaid part of the face value of shares held by them. At the time of winding up of the company, the personal property of shareholders is not used.

(ii) Company Limited by Guarantee: As per Section 2(21) of Companies Act, 2013 such companies may or may not have share capital. Every Member promises to pay a specific amount for liabilities and debts of the company on liquidation. Such amount is mentioned in the Memorandum of Association. Members give guarantees and they carry a specific amount of liability. Generally, such companies work for the promotion of sports, art, culture, charity, etc.

(iii) Unlimited Liability Companies: As per Section 2(92) of the Companies Act, 2013 such companies have members with unlimited liability. Members are fully liable to liabilities and debts of the company. It may be a private, public, or one-person company.

Question 8.
Explain any four types of companies.
Answer:
Following are the types of companies:
(A) On the basis of Incorporation:

• Statutory Company: Statutory companies are incorporated by Special Act. Such Act is passed in Central or State legislation.
• E.g. Reserve Bank of India, State Bank of India, Unit Trust of India, Life Insurance Corporation, etc.
• Registered Company: Such companies are formed under the Companies Act, 2013 or any previous company law.

(B) On the basis of Number of Members:
(i) Private Company: It is a company having minimum paid-up capital as prescribed by its Articles. Such companies restrict the rights of their members to transfer their shares and also restrict the maximum number of its members up to 200. Such companies are also prohibited to invite the public to subscribe to their securities or deposits.

(ii) Public Company: It is a company having a minimum paid-up share capital as prescribed by its Articles. Such companies do not restrict the rights of their members to transfer their shares. It requires minimum of 7 members to form a company and there is no limit on the maximum number of members. Such companies can
invite the public to subscribe for its securities or deposits.

(iii) One Person Company: It is a company, in which one person is a member. Such a company is managed by a single person, having limited liability. It should follow the rules of a private company. It may have one or more directors.

(C) One the basis of Liability of Members:
(i) Companies Limited by Shares: Such companies are formed as per Section 2(22) of the Companies Act, 2013. Such companies have to share capital and its members have limited liabilities up to unpaid part of the face value of shares held by them. At the time of winding up of the company, the personal property of shareholders is not used.

(ii) Company Limited by Guarantee: As per Section 2(21) of Companies Act, 2013 such companies may or may not have share capital. Every Member promises to pay a specific amount for liabilities and debts of the company on liquidation. Such amount is mentioned in the Memorandum of Association. Members give guarantees and they carry a specific amount of liability. Generally, such companies work for the promotion of sports, art, culture, charity, etc.

(iii) Unlimited Liability Companies: As per Section 2(92) of the Company Act, 2013 such companies have members with unlimited liability. Members are fully liable to liabilities and debts of the company. It may be a private, public, or one-person company.

(D) On the basis of Control:
(i) Holding Company: A company holding more than half of the share capital of another company is called a Holding Company. This company has the power to appoint directors of another company and remove directors of another company.

(ii) Subsidiary Company: The company which is controlled by a holding company is called a Subsidiary Company.

Activity (Text Book Page No. 25)

Identify the type of following companies:

1. Bajaj Auto Limited
2. Coal India Limited
3. Microsoft India
4. Kirloskar Foundation

Answer:

1. Bajaj Auto Limited – Public Limited Company
2. Coal India Limited – Government Company
3. Microsoft India – Subsidiary Company of American Software Company Microsoft Corporation
4. Kirloskar Foundation – Company Not for Profit (Corporate Social Responsibility)

Balbharti Maharashtra State Board 12th Chemistry Important Questions Chapter 10 Halogen Derivatives Important Questions and Answers.

Maharashtra State Board 12th Chemistry Important Questions Chapter 10 Halogen Derivatives

Question 1.
What are halogen derivatives of hydrocarbons?
Answer:
The replacement of hydrogen atom/s in aliphatic or aromatic hydrocarbons by halogen atom/s results in the formation of halogen derivatives of hydrocarbons.

Question 2.
How are halogen derivatives of hydrocarbons classified?
Answer:
Halogen derivatives of alkane are classified as :

1. Monohalogen derivative (or alkyl halide) : It is a halogen derivative of an alkane in which one hydrogen atom is replaced by one halogen atom and it is also called alkyl halide. E.g. C₂H₅Br.
2. Poh halogen derivatives : These are halogen derivatives in which more than one hydrogen atoms of an alkane are substituted by corresponding number of halogen atoms.

They are classified as follows :
(i) Dihalogen derivatives : The compounds formed by the substitution of two hydrogen atoms of an alkane by two halogen atoms are called dihalogen derivatives.

They are further classified as :

• Vicinal dihalides (Two halogen atoms on vicinal or adjacent carbon atoms)
• Geminal dihalides : CH₃ – CHCI₂ (Two halogen atoms on the same carbon atom)

(ii) Trihalogen derivatives : The compounds formed by the substitution of three hydrogen atoms of an alkane by three halogen atoms are called trihalogen derivatives.

(iii) Tetrahalogen derivatives : The compounds formed by the substitution of four hydrogen atoms of an alkane by four halogen atoms are called tetrahalogen derivatives. E.g. CCI₄.

Question 3.
What are alkyl halides? How are they classified?
Answer:
The compound formed by the replacement of one hydrogen atom in an alkane by a halogen atom is called an alkyl halide. The halogen atom is bonded to sp³ hybridised carbon. Alkyl halides are classified into the following three classes depending on the type of the carbon to which halogen atom is bonded.

(1) Primary (1°) alkyl halide : Alkyl halide in which a halogen atom is bonded to a primary carbon atom is called primary alkyl halide.

[Primary (1°) carbon atom i.e., the carbon atom which is attached to only one carbon atom.]

They are represented by the general formula R – ^1°CH₂ – X.

(2) Secondary (2°) alkyl halide : Alkyl halide in which a halogen atom is bonded to a secondary carbon atom is called secondary alkyl halide. [Secondary (2°) carbon i.e., the carbon atom which is attached to two other carbon atoms.]

They are represented by the general formula (R and R’ can be same or different)

(3) Tertiary (3°) alkyl halide : Alkyl halide in which halogen atom is bonded to a tertiary carbon atom is called tertiary alkyl halide. [Tertiary (3°) carbon i.e., the carbon atom which is attached to three other carbon atoms.]

They are represented by the general formula  (R, R’ and R” may be same or different)

Question 4.
Explain the following :
(1) Alkyl halide or haloalkanes
(2) Allylic halides
(3) Benzylic halide
(4) Vinylic halide
(5) Haloalkyne
(6) Aryl halide or haloarenes.
Answer:
(1) Alkyl halide or haloalkanes : In alkyl halides or haloalkanes the halogen atom is bonded to sp3 hybridized carbon which is a part of saturated carbon chain.
Example :

(2) Allylic halides : In allylic halides, halogen atom is bonded to a sp³ hybridized carbon atom next to a carbon-carbon double bond.

Example :

(3) Benzylic halide : In benzylic halides, halogen atom is bonded to a sp³ hybridized carbon atom which is further bonded to an aromatic ring.
Example :

(4) Vinylic halides : In vinylic halides, halogen atom is bonded to a sp² hybridized carbon atom of aliphatic chain. Vinylic halide is a haloalkene.
Example :

(5) Haloalkyne : In haloalkynes, halogen atom is bonded to a sp hybridized carbon atom.
Example :

(6) Aryl halides or haloarenes : In aryl halides, halogen atom is directly bonded to the sp² hybridized carbon atom of aromatic ring.
Example :

Question 5.
Give the IUPAC names of the following :
Answer:

Question 6.
Draw the structures of the following compounds:
Answer:

Question 7.
Write the structure of-
(a) 3-chloro-3-ethylhex-l-ene
(b) 1-Iodo-2, 3-dimethylbutane
(c) 1, 3, 5-tribromobenzene
Answer:

Question 8.
Write structures of
(a) 2-iodo-3-methyl pentane
(b) 3-chiorolleNane
(c) 1-chloro-2, 2-dimethyl propane
(d) 1-chloro-4-ethyl cyclohexane.
Answer:

Question 9.
Write the possible isomers of monochloro derivatives of 2,3-Dimethylbutane and write their IUPAC names.
Answer:
The given parent hydrocarbon has molecular formula, C₆H₁₄. The monochloro derivative of this compound has molecular formula C₆H₁₃CI.
The parent hydrocarbon is,

Hence the structures of isomers of monochioroderivative are.

Question 10.
Write structures and IUPAC names of all possible isomers of C₅H₁₁Br and classify them as l°/2°/3°.
Answer:
C₅H₁₁Br is a monohalogen derivative.

Question 11.
How are following compounds obtained from alcohols :
(1) ethyl chloride C₂H₅CI
(2) isopropyl chloride (CH₃ CHCI – CH₃)
(3) tert-butyl chloride (CH₃)₃ – CI?
Answer:
Alcohols in the presence of Lucas reagent which is a solution of concentrated HCI and ZnCI₂ form alkyl halides. Hydrogen chloride is used with zinc chloride (Grooves’ process) for primary and secondary alcohols.

(3) Tertiary alcohols don’t need ZnCI₂ to react with HCI.

The order of reactivity of alcohols with a given halo acid is 3° >2°> 1°.

Question 12.
How are following compounds prepared from alcohols:
(1) ethyl bromide (C₂H₅Br)
(2) isopropyl bromide (CH₃ – CHBr – CH₃)
(3) tert-butyl bromide (CH₃)₃ C – Br?
Answer:
(1) Ethyl alcohol on heating with conc. hydrobromic acid (48%) forms ethyl bromide.
OR
When ethyl alcohol is treated with a mixture of NaBr and H₂SO₄, ethyl bromide is formed. Here HBr is generated in situ.

(2) Isopropyl alcohol, on reaction with NaBr and dil. H₂SO₄ forms isopropyl bromide.

(3) Tertiary alcohol on reaction with sodium bromide and dil. H₂SO₄ forms tert-butyl bromide.

Question 13.
How is ethyl iodide obtained from ethyl alcohol?
Answer:
When ethyl alcohol is treated with sodium or potassium iodide in 95 % phosphoric acid, ethyl iodide is formed. Here HI is generated in situ.

Question 14.
How will you prepare the following :

(1) Ethyl chloride (chloroethane) from ethyl alcohol using
(i) PCI₃
(ii) PCI₅ and
(iii) SOCI₂.
Answer:
(i) When ethyl alcohol is refluxed with phosphorus trichloride, ethyl chloride is formed.

(ii) When ethyl alcohol is refluxed with phosphorus pentachloride, ethyl chloride is formed.

(iii) When ethyl alcohol is refluxed with thionyl chloride, in the presence of pyridine, ethyl chloride is formed. The by-products obtained are gases. Therefore, this method is preferred for preparation of alkyl chloride.

(2) Isopropyl chloride (2-chloropropane) from isopropyl alcohol using
(i) PCI₃
(ii) PCI₅
(iii) SOCI₂.
Answer:
When isopropyl alcohol is refluxed with phosphorus trichloride, isopropyl chloride is formed.

When isopropyl alcohol is refluxed with phosphorus pentachloride, isopropyl chloride is formed.

When isopropyl alcohol is refluxed with thionyl chloride, in the presence of pyridine, isopropyl chloride is formed. The by-products obtained are gases. Therefore, this method is preferred for the preparation of alkyl chloride.

(3) Ethyl bromide (bromoethane) from ethyl alcohol.
Answer:
When ethyl alcohol is treated with a mixture of red phosphorus and bromine or hydrobromic acid (phosphorus tribromide is generated in situ), ethyl bromide is formed.

(4) Ethyl iodide (do ethane) from ethyl alcohol.
Answer:
When ethyl alcohol is heated with a mixture of red phosphorus and iodine, (phosphorus triiodide is generated in situ), ethyl iodide is formed.

Question 15.
Explain halogenation of methane.
Answer:
Halogenation : A reaction of alkanes with halogens (CI₂, Br₂, I₂) in the presence of appropriate conditions forming a mixture of alkyl halides.
(1) Chlorination:

(2) When excess of chlorine is used, tetrachioro methane, a major product is obtained. When excess of methane is used, chioromethane, a major product is obtained. The order of reactivity of halogens towards alkane is

(3) lodination:

However, iodination reaction is a reversible reaction. HI being a strongest reducing agent reduces methyl iodide back to methane.

(4) Fluorination: A reaction of alkane with fluorine is explosive and also hydrofluoric acid is poisonous and corrosive. Hence, alkyl fluorides are not prepared by halogenation of alkane.

Question 16.
Predict the possible products of the following reaction :
(1) Bromination of propane
(2) Bromination of n-butane
(3) Bromination of 2-Methyl propane.
Answer:
(1) Bromination of propane

(2) Bromination of n-butane

(3) Bromination of 2-Methyl propane

Question 17.
How are following compounds prepared by halogenation of ethane :
(1) Chloroethane
(2) Bromoethane
(3) Iodoethane?
Answer:
(1) Chlorination of ethane : When ethane (excess) is reacted with a limited quantity of chlorine in the presence of diffused sunlight or U.V. light or at high temperature, chloroethane is obtained.

(2) Bromination of ethane : When ethane is heated with Br₂ in the presence of anhydrous AlBr₃, bromoethane is obtained.

(3) Iodination : When ethane is reacted with I₂ in the presence of suitable oxidising agents like-HgO or HIO₃ or dilute HNO₃ iodoethane is obtained.

Question 18.
Direct iodination of alkanes is not possible.
Answer:
(1) Direct iodination of alkanes using iodine is highly reversible.
\(\mathrm{RH}+\mathrm{I}_{2} \rightleftharpoons \mathrm{RI}+\mathrm{HI}\)
(2) Hydroiodic acid HI being strong reducing agent, it reduces RI to alkane RH.
(3) The reaction takes place only in the presence of a suitable oxidizing agent like HgO, HIO₃ or dilute HNO₃ which decomposes HI. Hence, direct iodination of alkanes is not possible.

Question 20.
How are following compounds obtained from alkenes :

Answer:
(1) Ethene on reaction with hydrogen chloride forms

(2) Ethene on reaction with hydrogen bromide forms

(3) Propene on reaction with hydrogen iodide forms

(4) but-2-ene on reaction with hydrogen iodide forms 2-iodobutane.

Question 19.
State and explain Markovnikov’s rule.
Answer:
Markovnikov’s rule : When an unsymmetrical reagent is added to an unsymmetrical alkene, the negative part of the reagent gets attached to that carbon atom of the double bond which carries less number of hydrogen atoms.

Example : Addition of HBr’to unsymmetrical alkene like propene gives two products.

Isopropyl bromide is the major product, since the negative part (Br^–) of HBr is attached to carbon atom of a double bond with less number of hydrogen atoms.

Question 20.
Explain peroxide effect.
OR
Write a note on the Kharasch-Mayo effect.
OR
Explain the addition of HBr to (unsymmetrical alkene) propane in the presence of benzoyl peroxide.
Answer:
The addition of HBr to an unsymmetrical alkene (propane) in the presence of benzoyl peroxide takes place in the opposite orientation to that of Markovnikov’s rule and this is known as Kharasch-Mayo effect or peroxide effect or Anti-Markovnikov addition.

Question 21.
Write the structure of alkyl halide obtained by the action hydrogen bromide on 2-Methyiprop-1-ene in the presence of peroxide.
Answer:
In the presence of peroxide. HBr to 2-Methyl prop-I-cne forms l-Bromo-2-methylpropane.

Question 22.
How are alkyl iodides prepared from alkyl chlorides/bromides?
Answer:
Alkyl iodide is prepared by treating alkyl chloride or alkyl bromide with sodium iodide, in the presence of dry acetone, sodium chloride or sodium bromide precipitates from the solution and can be separated by filtration. This reaction is known as Finkelstein reaction.

Question 23.
How are alkyl fluorides prepared with alkyl chlorides/alkyl bromides?
Answer:
When alkyl chloride or alkyl bromide is heated with metallic fluorides like AgF, CaF₂, CoF₂ or Hg₂F₂, alkyl fluoride is formed.

This reaction is known as Swarts reaction.

Question 24.
Explain the preparation of haloarenes using electrophilic substitution.
Answer:
When arene is treated with chlorine or bromine in dark at ordinary temperature in the presence of lewis acid as a catalyst like Fe, FeCI₃ or anhydrous AlCI₃, aryl chloride or aryl bromide is formed.

When toluene is brominated in dark at ordinary temperature in the presence of iron, a mixture of ortho and para bromo tolerene is obtained.

Ortho and para isomers can be easily separated as there is large difference in melting points of ortho and para isomers.

Question 25.
Write a note on Sandmeyer’s reaction.
Answer:
Aryl halides are most commonly prepared by replacement of nitrogen of diazonium salt. The replacement of diazonium group by -Cl or -Br using cuprous salt is called Sandmeyer’s reaction. When a primary aromatic amine (like aniline) suspended in cold F1C1, is treated with sodium nitrite, a diazonium salt (benzene diazonium chloride) is formed. When diazonium salt is treated with cuprous chloride or cuprous bromide, aryl halide (chlorobenzene or bromobenzene) is formed.

When benzene diazonium salt is mixed with potassium iodide, iodobenzene is formed.

Question 26.
Define the following :
Answer:
(1) Monochromatic light : It consists of rays of single wavelength vibrating in different planes perpendicular to the direction of propagation of the light.

(2) Plane polarized light : A light having oscillations only in one plane perpendicular to direction of propagation of light is known as plane polarized light.

(3) Optical isomerism : The steroisomerism in which the isomers have different spatial arrangements of groups/atoms around a chiral atom is called optical isomerism.

(4) Optical activity : The property of a substance by which it rotates plane of polarization of incident plane polarized light is known as optical activity.

(5) Optically active compound : The compound which rotate the plane of plane polarized light is called optically active compound.

(6) Enantiomers : The optical isomers which are non-superimposable mirror images of each other are called enantiomers or enantiomorphs or optical antipodes.
Example : 2-chlorobutane, lactic acid

(7) Chiral carbon atom : Carbon atom in a molecule which carries four different groups/atoms is called chiral carbon atom.

Chiral atom in a molecule is marked with asterisk (*)

For example : C in lactic acid

(8) Chiral molecule : When a molecule contains one chiral atom, it acquires a unique property i.e. it is non- superimposable with its mirror image is said to be chiral molecule.

(9) Chirality : The relationship between a chiral molecule and its mirror image is similar to the relationship between left and right hands. Therefore it is called handedness or chirality.

(10) Dextrorotatory substance or r/-Isomer : An optically active substance (or isomer) which rotates the plane of a plane polarized light to the right hand side (RHS) is called dextrorotatory substance (or isomer) and denoted by d or (+) sign.

(11) Laevorotatory substance or /-Isomer : An optically active substance (or isomer) which rotates the plane of a plane polarized light to the left hand side (LHS) is called laevorotatory substance (or isomer) and denoted by / or (-) sign.

(12) Racemic mixture or Racemate : A mixture containing equimolar quantities of dextro (d) and laevo (/) optical
isomers which is optically inactive due to molecules of one enantiomer is cancelled by equal and opposite optical rotation due to molecules of the other enantiomer is called a racemic mixture or racemate. It is represented as (dl) or (+).

Question 27.
Calculate the number of isomers for 2-chlorobutane.
Answer:
The number of optical isomers possible for a compound is 2ⁿ where n = number of asymetric carbon atoms.
As n = 1 for 2-ehlorobutane, 2ⁿ = 2¹ = 2. Hence, it has two optical isomers.

Question 28.
How many optical isomers are possible for C₅H₁₁ CI?
Answer:
The number of optical isomers : 3.

Question 29.
How many optical isomers are possible for glucose?
Answer:
The number of optical isomers : 16.

Question 30.
Draw the structures and indicate the chiral carbon atoms in
(1) Lactic acid
(2) 2-Chlorobutane.
Answer:
(1) In lactic acid structure, the starred carbon atom is chiral carbon atom as it is attached to four different substituents, COOH, OH, CH₃ and H.
(2) In 2-chlorobutane structure, the starred carbon atom is chiral carbon atom as it is attached to four different substituents, -CH₂ – CH₃ (ethyl), CH₃ (methyl), Cl and H.

Question 31.
Identify chira! and achiral molecules.

Question 32.
Complete the following reactions and explain optical activity of the products formed:
(i) Pent-1-ene with HBr
Answer:

(ii) Pent-2-ene with HBr
Answer:

Question 33.
C₆H₁₂ (A) on treatment with HCI produced a compound Y. Which is optically active, what is structure A?
Answer:

Question 34.
A racemic mixture is optically inactive. Explain.
Answer:

• A racemic mixture contains equimolar (or equimolecular) quantities of the dextrorotatory (d-) and laevorotatory (l-) isomers (enantiomers) of a compound.
• The d-enantiomer rotates the plane of plane-polarized light to the right, while the l-enantiomer rotates the same to the left to the same extent.
• The quantities of the d- and l-enantiomers being the same, both the rotations are of the same magnitude, but of opposite directions. Hence, they cancel each other. Hence, a racemic mixture is optically inactive.
• It is represented as dl or ( + ). Example : ( ± ) lactic acid

Question 35.
Explain Fischer projection formula with illustration.
OR
Write a note on Fischer projection formula.
Answer:
Fischer projection formula or cross formula : The three dimensional (3-D) view of a molecule is presented on plane of paper. A Fischer projection formula can be drawn by visualizing the main carbon chain verical in the molecule. Each carbon on the vertical chain is represented by a cross.

Conventionally the horizontal lines of the cross represent bonds projecting up from the carbon and the vertical lines represent the bonds going below the carbon.

Question 36.
Explain Wedge formula with illustration
OR
Write a note on Wedge formula.
Answer:
Wedge formula : When a tetrahedral carbon is imagined to be present in the plane of paper all the four bonds at this carbon cannot lie in the same plane. The bonds in the plane of paper are represented by normal lines, the bonds projecting above the plane of paper are represented by solid wedges (or simply by bold lines) while bonds going below the plane of paper are represented by broken wedges (or simply by broken lines).

Question 37.
Give a laboratory test to confirm the presence of halogen in the original organic compound.
Answer:
Haloalkanes are of neutral type in aqueous medium. On warming with aqueous sodium or potassium hydroxide the covalently bonded halogen in haloalkane is converted to halide ion.

When this reaction mixture is acidified by adding dilute nitric acid and silver nitrate solution is added a precipitate of silver halide is formed which confirms presence of halogen in the original organic compound.

Question 38.
Define the following :
Answer:
(1) Mechanism of a reaction : It is a step by step description of exactly how the reactants are transformed into products in as much details as possible.
(2) Substitution reaction : When a group bonded to a carbon in a substrate is replaced by another group to get a product with no change in state of hybridization of that carbon, the reaction is called substitution reaction.

Question 39.
Describe the action of aqueous KOH (or NaOH) on :
(1) ethyl bromide
(2) isopropyl bromide
(3) tert-butyl chloride
(4) methyl bromide
(5) 2-chlorobutane.
Answer:
(1) Ethyl bromide : When ethyl bromide (bromoethane) is refluxed with aqueous potassium hydroxide, ethyl alcohol is formed. The reaction is called a hydrolysis reaction.

(2) Isopropyl bromide : When isopropyl bromide (2-bromopropane) is boiled with aqueous potassium hydroxide, isopropyl alcohol is formed.

(3) Tert-butyl chloride : When tert-butyl chloride is refluxed with aqueous potassium hydroxide, tert-butyl alcohol is formed.

(4) Methyl bromide : When methyl bromide (bromomethane) is heated with aq. KOH, it is hydrolysed to methyl alcohol (methanol).

(5) 2-chlorobutane : When 2-Chlorobutane is boiled with aqueous KOH, Butan-2-ol is obtained.

Question 40.
Describe the action of sodium ethoxide on
(1) ethyl bromide
(2) methyl bromide :
OR
Write a note on Williamson’s synthesis.
OR
How are ethers prepared from alkyl halides?
Answer:
Williamson’s synthesis : When an alkyl halide (R – X) is heated with sodium alkoxide (R – O – Na), an ether is obtained. In this reaction halide (-X) of alkyl halide is replaced by an alkoxy group (-OR). This reaction is known as Williamson’s synthesis. This method is used to prepare simple (or symmetrical) ethers and mixed (or unsymmetrical) ethers.

Sodium alkoxide is obtained by a reaction of sodium with an alcohol.

(1) Simple (symmetrical) ether : When an alkyl halide and sodium alkoxide having similar alkyl groups are heated, symmetrical ether is obtained.

e.g., When ethyl bromide is heated with sodium ethoxide, diethyl ether is formed.

(2) Mixed (unsymmetrical) ether : When an alkyl halide and sodium alkoxide having different alkyl groups are heated, unsymmetrical ether is obtained.

When methyl bromide is heated sodium ethoxide, ethyl methyl ether is formed.
When ethyl bromide is heated with sodium meihoxide, ethyl methyl ether is formed.

Question 41.
What is the action of silver salt of carboxylic acid on alkyl halide?
Answer:
When an alkyl halide (R – X) is heated with silver salt of carboxylic acid (R -COOAg). an ester is obtained.

Question 42.
Describe the action of alcoholic silver acetate on
(1) methyl bromide
(2) ethyl bromide.
Answer:
(1) Methyl bromide : When methyl bromide is heated with an alcoholic silver acetate, methyl acetate is formed.

(2) Ethyl bromide : When ethyl bromide is heated with an alcoholic silver acetate, ethyl acetate is formed.

Question 43.
What is the action of alcoholic silver propionate on ethyl bromide?
Answer:
When ethyl bromide is heated with an alcoholic silver propionate. ethyl propionate is formed.

Question 44.
Describe the action of excess of ammonia on (I) ethyl bromide (2) n.propyl bromide.
Answer:
(1) Ethyl bromide : When ethyl bromide is boiled under pressure with an excess of alcoholic ammonia, ethylamine (ethanamine) is formed. This is known as ‘ammonolysis of ethyl bromide.

(2) n-propyl bromide : When n-propy1 bromide is boiled under pressure with an excess of ammonia, n-propyl amine (propanamine) is formed.

Question 45.
What is ammonolysis? Give a suitable example for the reaction.
Answer:
When an alkyl halide is boiled under pressure with an excess of alcoholic solution of ammonia (NH₃), corresponding (primary amine) alkyl amine is formed. This reaction is known as ammonolysis of alkyl halide.

(1) Ethyl bromide : When ethyl bromide (bromoethane) is refluxed with aqueous potassium hydroxide, ethyl alcohol is formed. The reaction is called a hydrolysis reaction.

(2) Isopropyl bromide : When isopropyl bromide (2-bromopropane) is boiled with aqueous potassium hydroxide, isopropyl alcohol is formed.

(3) Tert-butyl chloride : When tert-butyl chloride is refluxed with aqueous potassium hydroxide, tert-butyl alcohol is formed.

(4) Methyl bromide : When methyl bromide (bromomethane) is heated with aq. KOH, it is hydrolysed to methyl alcohol (methanol).

(5) 2-chlorobutane : When 2-Chlorobutane is boiled with aqueous KOH, Butan-2-ol is obtained.

Question 46.
Describe the action of aqueous alcoholic potassium cyanide on
(1) ethyl bromide
(2) methyl iodide.
Answer:
Ethyl bromide : When ethyl bromide (bromoethane) is boiled with alcoholic solution of potassium cyanide in aqueous ethanol, ethyl cyanide (ethyl nitrile) is formed.

(2) Methyl iodide : When methyl iodide is boiled with alcoholic solution of potassium cyanide, methyl cyanide is formed.

Question 47.
Describe the action of alcoholic silver cyanide on
(1) ethyl bromide
(2) methyl chloride.
OR
Explain isocyanide reaction of
(1) ethyl bromide
(2) methyl chloride.
Answer:
(1) Ethyl bromide : When ethyl bromide is heated with alcoholic silver cyanide, ethyl isocyanide is formed.

(2) Methyl chloride : When .methyl chloride is heated with alcoholic silver cyanide, methyl isocyanide is formed.

The above reactions (1) and (2) are called isocyanide reaction.

Question 48.
Describe the action of potassium nitrite on
(i) ethyl bromide,
(ii) methyl chloride.
Answer:
(1) Ethyl bromide : When ethyl bromide is treated with potassium nitrite, ethyl nitrite is formed.

(2) Methyl chloride : When methyl chloride is treated with potassium nitrite, methyl nitrite is formed.

Question 49.
Describe the action of silver nitrite on (1) ethyl chloride (2) n-propyl bromide.
Answer:
(1) Ethy chloride : When ethyl chloride is treated with silver nitrite, nitroethane is obtained.

(2) n-Propyt bromide: When n-propyl bromide is treated with silver nitrate, nitropropane is obtained.

Question 50.
How will you convert (the following:

(1) Ethyl bromide to ethanol.
Answer:

(2) Ethyl bromide to propane nitrile.
Answer:

(3) Ethyl bromide to ethyl amine.
Answer:

(4) Ethyl bromide to ethyl acetate.
Answer:

(5) Ethyl bromide to ethyl isocyanide.
Answer:

(6) Ethyl bromide to ethyl methyl ether.
Answer:

(7) Ethyl bromide to n-butane.
Answer:

(8) Ethyl bromide to Ethyl magnesium bromide.
Answer:

Question 51.
Define the following :
Answer:
(1) Nucleophilic bimolecular reaction (SN²) : The substitution reaction in which a nucleophile reacts with the substrate and the rate of the reaction depends on the concentration of the substrate and the nucleophile is called a nucleophilic bimolecular reaction.

Example :

(2) SN¹ reaction : The substitution reaction in which a nucleophile reacts with the substrate and the rate of the reaction depends only on the concentration of the substrate is called nucleophilic unimolecular or first order reaction or SN¹ reaction.

Question 52.
Explain, the mechanism of alkaline hydrolysis (reaction with aqueous KOH) of tert-butyl bromide (2-Bromo-2-methylpropane) with energy profile diagram.
OR
Explain only reaction mechanism for alkaline hydrolysis of tert-butyl bromide.
Answer:
(i) Consider alkaline hydrolysis of tert-butyl bromide (2-Bromo-2 methylpropane) with aqueous NaOH or KOH.

(ii) Kinetics of the reaction : Due to steric hindrance of voluminous three methyl groups around carbon, nucleophile OH- cannot attack carbon atom directly. Hence, the reaction takes place in two steps.

Step I : This involves heterolytic fission of C – Br covalent bond in the substrate forming carbocation and Br^–. This is a slow process.

Step II : This step involves attack of nucleophile OH- or carbocation forming C – OH bond and product tert-butyl alcohol. Since it involves ionic charge neutralisation, it is a fast step.

Rate Determining Step (R.D.S.) : Since the first step is a slow step, it is R.D.S., and therefore the rate of the reaction depends on the concentration of only one reactant, (CH₃) C – Br.
Rate = R = k [(CH₃)₃ C – Br] where k is a rate constant of the reaction.

SN¹ reaction : The reaction between tert.butyl bromide and hydroxide ion to form tert.butyl alcohol follows a first-order kinetics. The rate of this reaction depends only on the concentration of one substance (tert-butyl bromide) and is independent of the concentration of alkali added. It is an unimolecular first (1st) order Nucleophilic Substitution reaction denoted as SN reaction.

Stereochemistry and mechanism of the reaction : The reaction takes place in two steps and both the steps involve formation of transition states (T.S.).

T.S. -1 for first step :

In this transition state, C – Br bond is partially broken, so that carbon atom carries partial positive charge (+δ) and Br carries partial negative charge (-δ) which further breaks forming carbocation and Br . Tert-butyl cation (carbocation) has a planar structure and the CH₃ – C – CH₃ bond angle is 120°. It is the intermediate of the reaction. It is unstable. In this step, hybridisation of carbon atom changes from sp³ (tetrahedral geometry) to sp (planar geometry).

T.S. – II for second step :

In this transition state, C – OH bond is partially fonned so that carbon atom carries partial positive charge (+ δ) and OH carries partial negative charge ( -δ) which further forms tert-butyl alcohol.

Formation of a racemic mixture : Since OH^– has equal probability of the attack on carbocation from frontside and from backside, the products obtained are equal. In case of optical active alkyl halide, a racemic mixture is obtained.

Question 53.
Discuss SN² mechanism of methyl bromide using aqueous KOH. Draw energy profile diagram.
OR
Discuss the mechanism of alkaline hydrolysis of methyl bromide or Bromomethane.
Answer:
(1) Consider alkaline hydrolysis of methyl bromide (Bromomethane). CH₃Br with aqueous NaOH or KOH.

(2) Stereochemistry and Kinetics of the reaction iR.D.S.) : This hydrolysis reaction takes place only in one step which is a rate determining step i.e. R.D.S. The rate of hydrolysis reaction depends on the Concentration of CH3Br
and 0H which are present in the R.D.S. of the reaction.
Rate = R = k [CH₃Br] (OH]
where k is rate constant of the reaction.

SN² reaction : The reaction between methyl bromide and hydroxide ion to form methanol follows a second order kinetics, since the rate of the reaction depends on the concentrations of two reacting species, namely methyl bromide and hydroxide ion it is bimolecular second order (2nd) Nucleophilic Substitution reaction denoted by SN².

(3) Mechanism of the reaction :
(i) It is a single step mechanism. The reaction takes place in the following steps :

(ii) Backside attack of the nucleophile : Nucleophile, OH^– attacks carbon atom of CH₃Br from back side i. e. from opposite side to that of the leaving group i.e. Br^– to experience minimum steric repulsion and electrostatic repulsion between the incoming nucleophile (OH^–) and leaving Br^–.

(iii) Transition state : When a nucleophile, OH^– approaches carbon atom of CH₃Br, the potential energy of the system increases until a transition state (T.S.) of maximum potential energy is formed in which C – Br bond is partially broken and C – OH bond is partially formed. The negative charge is equally shared by both incoming nucleophile- OH^– and outgoing, leaving group-Br^–. (Thus, the total negative charge is diffused.)

(iv) In CH₃Br, carbon atom is sp³ -hybridized and CH₃Br molecule is tetrahedral. The hybridisation of carbon atom changes to sp² hybridisation. The transition state contains pentacoordinate carbon having three δ (sigma) bonds in one plane making bond angles of 120° with each other i.e., H₁; H₂ and H₃ atoms lie in one plane while two partial covalent bonds containing Br and OH lie collinear and on opposite sides perpendicular to the plane.

(v) Inversion of configuration : The transition state decomposes fast by the complete breaking of the C-Br bond and the new C-OH bond is formed on the other side. The breaking of C-Br bond and the formation of C-OH bond take place simultaneously. The energy required to break the C-Br bond is partly obtained from the energy released when C-OH bond is formed. The formation of product CH₃OH is accompanied by complete or 100% inversion of configuration forming again sp³-hybridized carbon atom giving tetrahedral CH₃OH molecule. But in this structure the positions of H₂ and H₃ atoms in the reactant (CH₃Br) and in product are on the opposite side. This inversion of configuration is called Walden inversion.

Question 54.
Discuss the factors influencing S_N1 and S_N2 mechanism.
Answer:
(1) Nature of substrate : S_N2 : The transition state (T.S.) of S_N2 mechanism + is pentacoordinate, it is crowded. As a result S_N2 mechanism is favoured in primary halides and least favoured in tertiary halides.

S_N1 : A planar carbocation intermediate is formed in S_N1 reaction. Bulky alkyl groups can be easily accommodated in planar carbocation and it has no steric crowding. As a result SN1 mechanism is favoured in tertiary halides and least favoured in primary halides.

The carbocation intermediate is stabilized by + effect of alkyl substituents and also by hyperconjugation y effect of alkyl substituents containing a-hydrogens. As a result, S_N1 mechanism is favoured in tertiary halides and least favoured in primary halides.

Thus, tertiary alkyl halides undergo nucleophilic substitution by S_N1 mechanism while primary halides follow S_N2 mechanism.

(2) Nucleophilicity of the reagent : A strong nucleophile attacks the substrate faster and favours S_N2 mechanism. The rate of S_N1 mechanism is independent of the nature of nucleophile. Nucleophile does not react in the 1st step (slow step) of S_N1. Nucleophile reacts fast after the carbocation intermediate is formed.

(3) Solvent polarity : (1) S_N1 reaction proceeds more rapidly in polar protic solvents than in aprotic solvent. Polar protic solvent decreases the rate of S_N2 reaction. (2) In S_N2 mechanism, rate depends on substrate as well as nucleophile. A polar solvent stabilizes nucleophile by solvation. Thus solvent deactivates the nucleophile by stabilizing it. Hence, aprotic solvents or solvent of low polarity will favour S_N2 mechanism.

Question 55.
How does relative reactivity for alkaline hydrolysis with respect to S_N2 and S_N1 vary in the following alkyl halides :
(1) Bromomethane
(2) Bromoethane
(3) 2-Bromopropane
(4) 2-Bromo-2-methylpropane ?
Answer:
(A) Relative reactivity for S_N2 mechanism decreases in the order of :

(B) Relative reactivity for S_N1 mechanism decreases in the order of :
2-Bromo-2-methylpropane > 2-Bromopropane > Bromoethane > Bromomethane

Question 56.
Explain with reason the relative order of reactivity of l°/2°/3° alkyl halides by S_N1 mechanism.
Answer:
In alkaline hydrolysis of an alkyl halide by S_N1 mechanism, the formation of carbocation as an intermediate product is involved.

The increasing order of a stability of carbocation is,

The stability order for carbocation is 3° > 2° > 1°.
Therefore the increasing order of reactivity by S_N1 mechanism of alkyl halides is
(1°) primary < (2°) secondary < (3°) tertiary

Question 57.
Which one of the following is more easily hydrolysed in S_N1 and S_N2 reaction by aqueous KOH, C₆H₅ CHCIC₆H₅ and C₆H₅CH₂CI?
Answer:
In S_N1 reaction C₆H₅CHCI C₆H₅ will be more easily hydrolysed than C₆H₅CH₂CI
In S_N2 reaction C₆H₅ CH₂CI will be more easily hydrolysed than C₆H₅CHCIC₆H₅.

Question 58.
Choose the member that will react faster than the following pairs by S_N1 mechanism.
(1) l-bromo-2, 2-dimethyl propane or 2-bromopropane.

Answer:
The reactivity of S_N1 reaction depends on the steric hindrance, in 2-bromopropane, a-carbon atom is attached to two methyl groups suffers greater steric hindrance to nucleophilic attack than l-bromo-2, 2-dimethyl propane. Hence, 2-bromopropane react faster by S_N1 mechanism.

(2) 2-Iodo-2-methyl butane or 2-iodio-3-methyl butane.

Answer:
Since, 2-Iodo-2-methyl butane is a tertiary alkyl halide, it undergoes SN^-1 reaction faster than 2-iodo-3-methyl butane.

(3) 1-Chloro propane or 2-chloropropane.

Answer:
Since, 2-chloropropane is a secondary alkyl halide, it undergoes SN^-1 reaction faster than 1-chloropropane.

(4) 2-Iodo-2-methyl butane or tert-butyl chloride.

Answer:
Since, iodine is a better leaving group than chloride 2-iodo-2-methyl butane undergo SN^-1 reaction faster than tert-butyl chloride.

Question 59.
Write a note on elimination reaction.
OR
Explain dehydrohalogenation reaction.
Answer:
When alkyl halide having at least one β-hydrogen is boiled with alcoholic solution of potassium hydroxide (KOH), an alkene is formed due to elimination of hydrogen atom from β-carbon and halogen atom from α-carbon, is called dehydrohalogenation.

Tertiary butyl bromide when heated with alcoholic solution of potassium hydroxide forms isobutylene.

This reaction is called β-elimination (or 1,2-elimination) reaction as it involves elimination of halogen and a β-hydrogen atom.

As hydrogen and halogen is removed in this reaction it is also known as dehydrohalogenation reaction.

Question 60.
Describe the action of alcoholic potassium hydroxide (aic. KOH) on
(1) ethyl bromide
(2) n-propyl bromide
(3) isopropyl bromide
(4) tert-butyl chlorIde.
Answer:
(1) Ethyl bromide : When ethyl bromide (bromoethane) is heated with alcoholic potassium hydroxide (alcoholic alkali). ethene (gas) is formed by the dehydrobrominaion reaction.

(2) n-PropI bromide : When n-propyl bromide is heated with alcoholic potassium hydroxide, propene is formed.

(3) Isopropvl bromide : When isopropyl bromide (2-bromopropane) is boiled with alcoholic potassium hydroxide, propcne is formed.

(4) Tert-hutyl chloride: When ten-butyl chloride (2-chloro-2-methyl propanc) is hcatcd with alcoholic KOH.

Question 61.
Describe the action of alc.KOH on 2-bromobutane.
When 2-bromobutane is boiled with alc.KOH on 2-bromobutane, a mixture of but-l-ene and but-2-ene is formed.
Answer:

Question 62.
Explain Saytzelf’s rule with suitable example.
Answer:
Saytzcff’s rule : In dehydrohalogenation reaction the preferred product is that alkene which has the greater number of alkyl groups attached to the doubly bonded carbon atoms.

Hence the number of alkyl substituents on doubly bonded Carbon atoms increases, the stability of the alkene giving its major products.

Hence the increasing stability of alkenes is.

There are two types of fi hydrogens (β₁ and β₂) therefore two alkenes are expected.

Question 63.
What is a Grignard reagent ?
Answer:
Grignard reagent : An organometallic compound in which the divalent magnesium is directly linked to an alkyl group (R -) and a halogen atom (X), and has general formula R – Mg – X is called Grignard reagent. OR When alkyl halide is treated with magnesium in dry ether as solvent, it gives alkyl magnesium halide. It is known as Grignard reagent.

The carbon-magnesium bond is highly polar and magnesium-halogen bond is in ionic in nature. Grignard reagent is highly reactive. It is an important reagent and used in the preparation of a large number of organic compounds.

Question 64.
How is Grignard reagent prepared ?
Answer:
Grignard reagent is an alkyl magnesium halide, R – Mg – X obtained by the reaction of alkyl halide R – X with magnesium (Mg) in dry ether.

When an alkyl halide like CH₃I is added from a dropping funnel to a flask containing pieces of pure Mg in pure and dry ether (diethyl ether) and a trace of iodine, Grignard reagent, CH₃ – Mg – I is formed.

Ethyl iodide when treated with magnesium in presence of dry ether forms ethyl magnesium iodide.

Question 65.
Write a note on Grignard reagent.
Answer:
(1) Ethyl bromide : When ethyl bromide (bromoethane) is heated with alcoholic potassium hydroxide (alcoholic alkali). ethene (gas) is formed by the dehydrobrominaion reaction.

(2) n-PropI bromide : When n-propyl bromide is heated with alcoholic potassium hydroxide, propene is formed.

(3) Isopropvl bromide : When isopropyl bromide (2-bromopropane) is boiled with alcoholic potassium hydroxide, propcne is formed.

(4) Tert-hutyl chloride: When ten-butyl chloride (2-chloro-2-methyl propanc) is hcatcd with alcoholic KOH.

Question 66.
Describe the action of water on
(1) methyl magnesium iodide
(2) ethyl magnesium iodide.
Answer:
(1) Methyl magnesium iodide : When methyl magnesium iodide is treated with water, methane is obtained

(2) Ethyl magnesium iodide : When ethyl magnesium iodide is treated with water, ethane is obtained.

Question 67.
Describe the action of ammonia on
(1) ethyl magnesium bromide
(2) n-propyl magnesium chloride.
Answer:
(1) Ethyl magnesium bromide : When ethyl magnesium bromide is treated with ammonia, ethane is formed.

(2) n-Propyl magnesium chloride : When n-propyl magnesium chloride is treated with ammonia, propane is formed.

Question 68.
Explain Wurtz reaction. OR Explain the action of sodium with alkyl halides.
Answer:
(1) When an alkyl halide is treated with metallic sodium in dry ether, the corresponding higher alkane is formed. This is called Wurtz reaction or Wurtz coupling reaction.

(2) In this reaction the alkyl radicals from two molecules of the reacting alkyl halide combine or couple to form the higher alkane.

(3) Thus, methyl bromide reacts with sodium in ether to form ethane (C₂H₆), while ethyl bromide under the same conditions forms n-butane (C₄H₁₀).

(4) If a mixture of two different alkyl halides is treated with Na in dry ether, then a mixture of alkanes is obtained called self coupling products. For example, a mixture of CH₃Br and C₂H₅Br gives propane along with C₂H₆ and C₄H₁₀.

Question 69.
Explain the reaction of haloarene with alkyl halide and sodium metal.
Write a note on Wurtz-Fittig reaction.
Answer:
When an alkyl halide and an aryl halide is treated with sodium metal in dry ether the corresponding alkylarene (alkyl benzene) is formed. The reaction is known as Wurtz-Fittig reaction. This reaction allows alkylation of alkyl halides.

Question 70.
Describe the action of aryl halide on sodium metal.
Answer:
Aryl halide reacts with sodium metal in dry ether, biphenyl is formed. This reaction is known as Fittig reaction.

Question 71.
Identify the product A of following reaction.

Answer:

Question 72.
Explain the following substitution reactions of chlorobenzene :
(1) Halogenation
(2) Nitration
(3) Sulphonation.
Answer:
(1) Halogenation : When chlorobenzene is reacted with chlorine in presence of anhydrous ferric chloride, a mixture of ortho and para-dichlorobenzene (major product) is formed.

(2) Nitration : When chlorobenzene is heated with nitrating mixture (cone, nitric acid -I- cone, sulphuric acid) a mixture of l-chloro-4-nitro benzene (major product) and l-chloro-2-nitrobenzene is formed.

(3) Sulphonation : When chlorobenzene is heated with concentrated sulphuric acid, a mixture of 4-chlorobenzene sulphonic acid (major product) and 2-chlorobenzene sulphonic acid is formed.

Question 73.
Describe the action of the following on chlorobenzene :
(1) Methyl chloride in the presence of anhydrous AICI₃
(2) Acetyl chloride in the presence of anhydrous AICI₃.
Answer:
(1) Methyl chloride in the presence of anhydrous AICI₃ : When chlorobenzene is treated with methyl chloride in the presence of anhydrous AICI₃, a mixture of l-chloro-4-methyl benzene (major product) and l-chloro-2-methyl benzene is formed. Since, the alkyl group is introduced in the benzene ring, the reaction is termed as Friedel Craft’s alkylation.

(2) Acetyl chloride in the presence of anhydrous AICI₃ : When chlorobenzene is reacted with acetyl chloride in the presence of anhydrous AICI₃, a mixture of 2-chloro acetophenone and 4-chloro acetophenone (major product) is formed. Since, the acetyl group is introduced in the benzene ring, the reaction is termed as Friedel Craft’s acylation.

Question 74.
Write a note on Friedel Craft’s reaction.
Answer:

(1) Methyl chloride in the presence of anhydrous AICI₃ : When chlorobenzene is treated with methyl chloride in the presence of anhydrous AICI₃, a mixture of l-chloro-4-methyl benzene (major product) and l-chloro-2-methyl benzene is formed. Since, the alkyl group is introduced in the benzene ring, the reaction is termed as Friedel Craft’s alkylation.

(2) Acetyl chloride in the presence of anhydrous AICI₃ : When chlorobenzene is reacted with acetyl chloride in the presence of anhydrous AICI₃, a mixture of 2-chloro acetophenone and 4-chloro acetophenone (major product) is formed. Since, the acetyl group is introduced in the benzene ring, the reaction is termed as Friedel Craft’s acylation.

Question 75.
Convert 1-chlorobutane into the following compounds :

Answer:
(1) 1-Chlorobutane to butan-l-ol :

(2) 1-Chlorobutane to 1-iodobutane :

(3) 1-Chlorobutane to n-butyl cyanide (CH₃ – CH₂ – CH₂ – CH₂ – CN) :

(4) l-Chlorobutane to

Question 76.
Predict the expected product of substitution reactions :
(1) Isobutyl chloride + sodium ethoxide.
Answer:

(2) n-butyl chloride + sodium.
Answer:

(3) 1-chloropropane + aq. potassium hydroxide.
Answer:

(4) Aniline + NaNO₂/HCl.
Answer:

Question 77.
Write the products:

Question 78.
Identify A and B in the following :

Answer:

Answer:

Answer:

Answer:

Answer:

Answer:

Question 79.
State the uses of the following compounds :
(1) Dichloromethane (CH₂CI₂)
(2) Trichloromethane or Chloroform (CHCI₃)
(3) Tetrachloromethane or carbon tetrachloride (CCI₄)
(4) Iodoform (CHI₃)
(5) Freons
(6) DDT (p, p’-Dichlorodiphenyl trichloroethane).
Answer:
(1) Dichloromethane (CH₂CI₂) :

• Dichloromethane dissolves wide range of organic compounds, hence it is used as solvent for many chemical reactions.
• It is used as a solvent as a paint remover and degreaser.
• It is used as propellant in aerosols and as a fumigant pesticide for grains and strawberries.
• It is used to decaffinate tea or coffee.

(2) Trichloromethane or Chloroform (CHCI₃) :

• Chloroform in the production of chlorofluoromethane, freon refrigerant R-22.
• It is used as solvent in pharmaceuticals, pesticides, gums, fats, resins and dye industry.
• It is a good source of dichlorocarbene species.

(3) Tetrachloromethane or carbon tetrachloride (CCI₄) :

• Carbon tetrachloride is used in the manufacture of refrigerants.
• It is used as a dry cleaning agent and as a pesticide for stored grains.
• It is very useful solvent for oils, fats and resins. It serves as a source of chlorine.

(4) Iodoform (CHI₃) :

• Iodoform is used as antiseptic, dressing of wounds and sores.
• On small scale it is used as disinfectant.

(5) Freons :

• Freons are widely used as propellants in aerosol, products of food, cosmetics and pharmaceutical industries.
• Freons containing bromine in their molecules are used as fire extinguishers.
• They are used in aerosol insecticides, solvent for cleaning clothes and metallic surfaces.
• It is used as foaming agents in the preparation of foamed plastics and in production of certain fluorocarbons.
• It is used as refrigerants and air conditioning purposes.

Question 80.
State the environmental effects of the following compounds :
(1) Dichloromethane (CH₂CI₂)
(2) Trichloromethane or chloroform (CHCI₃)
(3) Tetrachloromethane or carbon tetrachloride (CCI₄)
(4) Iodoform (CHI₃)
(5) Freon.s (CCI₂F₂, CCI₃F, CHCIF₂)

Answer:
(1) Dichloromethane (CH₂CI₂) :

• Higher levels of dichloromethane in air causes nausea, numbness in fingers and toes, dizziness.
• Lower levels of dichloromethane causes impaired vision and hearing.
• Direct contact with eyes can damage cornea.

(2) Trichloromethane or chloroform (CHCI₃) :

• When chloroform is exposed to air in the presence of sunlight, it slowly oxidised to phosgene, a poisonous compound, therefore it is stored in dark, amber coloured bottles.
• Chloroform vapour when inhaled for a short time causes dizziness, headache and fatigue and if inhaled for a long time affects central nervous system.

(3) Tetrachloromethane or carbon tetrachloride (CCI₄) :

• Exposure to carbon tetrachloride causes eye irritation, damages nerve cells, vomiting sensation, dizziness, unconciousness or death. Long exposure to chloroform may affect liver.
• When mixed with air it causes depletion of the ozone layer, which affects human skin leading to cancer.

(4) Iodoform (CHI₃) : Iodoform has a strong smell. It causes irritation to skin and eyes. It may cause respiratory irritation or breathing difficulty, dizziness, nausea, depression of central nervous system, visual disturbance.

(5) Freons (CCI₂F₂, CCI₃F, CHCIF₂) :

• Freon as refrigerant causes ozone depletion.
• Freons have low toxicity and low biological activity.
• Freons from propane group are more toxic in nature.
• Regular large inhalation of freon results in breathing problems, organ damage, loss of consciousness.

(6) DDT :

• DDT is not readily metabolised by animals.
• It is deposited and stored in fatty tissues.
• Exposure to high doses of DDT may cause vomiting, tremors or shakiness.
• Laboratory animal studies showed adverse effect of DDT on liver and reproduction.
• DDT is a pressistent organic pollutant, readily absorbed in soils and tends to accumulate in the ecosystem.
• When dissolved in oil or other lipid, it is readily absorbed by the skin. It is resistant to metabolism.
• There is a ban on use of DDT due to all these adverse effects.

Question 81.
What is the chemical name of freon?
Answer:
The chemical name of freon is Dichlorodifluoromethane.

Question 82.
What is the chemical name of DDT ?
Answer: The chemical name of DDT is p, p’-Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane.

Activity :
(1) Collect detailed information about Freons and their uses.
(2) Collect information about DDT as a persistent pesticide.
Reference books :
(1) Organic chemistry by Morrison, Boyd, Bhattacharjee, 7th edition, Pearson.
(2) Organic chemistry by Finar, Vol 1, 6th edition, Pearson

Multiple Choise Questions

Question 83.
Select and write the most appropriate answer from the given alternatives for each sub-question :

Question 1.

Answer:
(b) CH₃ – CH₂ – CH₂ – I

Question 2.
The rate of S_N2 reaction depends on the concentra¬tion of
(a) only the substrate
(b) only the reagent
(c) both the substrate and the reagent
(d) neither the substrate nor the reagent
Answer:
(c) both the substrate and the reagent

Question 3.
In S_N2 reaction, the hydrolysis of alkyl halide shows
(a) the retention of configuration
(b) the inversion of configuration
(c) both retention and inversion of configuration
(d) no change in the configuration
Answer:
(b) the inversion of configuration

Question 4.
The one step exothermic reaction is
(a) S_N1
(b) S_N2
(C) S_N
(d) S2_N
Answer:
(b) S_N2

Question 5.
Which of the following is correct about S_N2 mechanism?
(a) Two step reaction
(b) Complete inversion of configuration
(c) Formation of carbonium ion
(d) Favoured by polar solvent
Answer:
(b) Complete inversion of configuration

Question 6.
Which of the following is not a nucleophile?
(a) Ammonia
(b) Ammonium ion
(c) Primary amine
(d) Secondary amine
Answer:
(d) Secondary amine

Question 7.
Which of the following undergoes nucleophilic substitution exclusively by S_N2 mechanism ?
(a) ethyl chloride
(b) isopropyl chloride
(c) chlorobenzene
(d) benzyl chloride
Answer:
(d) benzyl chloride

Question 8.
Which of the following is most reactive towards nucleophilic substitution reaction ?
(a) CH₂ = CH – CI
(b) CH₃CH = CHCI
(c) C₆H₅CI
(d) CICH₂ – CH = CH₂
Answer:
(d) CICH₂ – CH = CH₂

Question 9.
The stability order of carbocation is
(a) 2° > 3° > 1°
(b) 3° > 2° > 1°
(c) 3° > 1° > 2°
(d) 1° > 3° > 2°
Answer:
(b) 3° > 2° > 1°

Question 10.

(a) ethane
(b) propane
(c) n-butane
(d) n-pentane
Answer:
(c) n-butane

Question 11.
Which of the following characteristic properties of the enantiomers is correct?
(a) The enantiomers possess same physical and chemical properties
(b) The enantiomers are optically active compounds
(c) The enantiomers have different optical rotations
(d) All of these
Answer:
(d) All of these

Question 12.
The optically inactive compound is
(a) glucose
(b) lactic acid
(c) isopropyl alcohol
(d) 2-bromo butane
Answer:
(c) isopropyl alcohol

Question 13.
A compound with the molecular formula CH₂OH(CHOH)₃CH₂OH has optically active forms
(a) 3
(b) 4
(c) 6
(d) 8
Answer:
(d) 8

Question 14.
A racemic mixture consists of
(a) equal amount of d and l isomers
(b) unequal amounts of d and / isomers
(c) unknown amounts of d and / isomers
(d) only d isomers
Answer:
(a) equal amount of d and l isomers

Question 15.
Which of the following compounds is not optically active ?
(a) Lactic acid
(b) Secondary butyl chloride
(c) n-propyl iodide
(d) Glucose
Answer:
(c) n-propyl iodide

Question 16.
Which of the following compounds shows optical activity ?
(a) n-butyl chloride
(b) isobutyl chloride
(c) sec-butyl chloride
(d) t-butyl chloride
Answer:
(c) sec-butyl chloride

Question 17.
The major product of the following reaction is

Answer:
(c)

Question 18.
The above reaction is known as

(a) Wurtz-Fittig reaction
(b) Friedel Craft’s reaction
(c) Sandmeyer’s reaction
(d) Swarts reaction
Answer:
(b) Friedel Craft’s reaction

Question 19.
Iodoform is used as
(a) an anaesthetic
(b) an antiseptic
(c) an analgesic
(d) an antibiotic
Answer:
(b) an antiseptic

Question 20.
p, p’-dichlorodiphenyl trichloroethane is used as
(a) insecticide
(b) anaesthetic
(c) antiseptic
(d) refrigerant
Answer:
(a) insecticide

Question 21.
The order of reactivity in nucleophilic substitution reaction is
(a) CH₃F < CH₃C1 < CH₃I < CH₃Br
(b) CH₃F < CH₃C1 < CH₃Br < CH₃I
(c) CH₃F < CH₃Br < CH₃C1 < CH₃I
(d) CH₃I < CH₃Br < CH₃C1 < CH₃F
Answer:
(b) CH₃F < CH₃C1 < CH₃Br < CH₃I

Question 22.
Racemate is
(a) optically active
(b) optically dextro rotatory
(c) optically inactive
(d) optically laevorotatory
Answer:
(c) optically inactive

Question 23.
The number of asymmetric carbon atoms in glucose are
(a) 2
(b) 3
(c) 4
(d) 5
Answer:
(c) 4

Question 24.
The geometry of carbon lum ion is
(a) Tetrahedral
(b) planar
(c) linear
(d) pyramidal
Answer:
(b) planar

Question 25.
In its nucleophilic substitution reaction, aryl halide resembles
(a) Vinyl chloride
(b) allyl chloride
(e) Benzyl chloride
(d) ethyl chloride
Answer:
(a) Vinyl chloride

Question 26.
The weakest C-Cl bond is present in

Answer:
(d)

Question 27.
Which alkyl halide among the following com¬pounds has the highest boiling point ?
(a) (CH₃)₃CCI
(b) CH₃CH₂CH₂CH₂CI
(c) CH₃CH₂CH₂C1
(d) CH₃CH(CH₃)CH₂CI
Answer:
(b) CH₃CH₂CH₂CH₂CI

Question 28.
It is difficult to break C-Cl bond in CH₂ = CH – CI due to
(a) Hyper conjugation
(b) Resonance
(c) Electromeric effect
(d) Inductive effect
Answer:
(b) Resonance

Question 29.
Which one of the following when heated with metallic sodium will not give the corresponding alkane ?

Answer:
(c)

Question 30.
The most reactive alkyl halide towards SN2 reac¬tion is
(a) CH₃X
(b) R₃CX
(C) R₂CHX
(d) RCH₂X
Answer:
(a) CH₃X

Question 31.
The number of electrons surrounding the carbon- ium ion is
(a) 6
(b) 8
(c) 10
(d) 7
Answer:
(a) 6

Question 32.
The lowest stability of carbocation among the compounds

Answer:
(a)

Question 33.
Carbon atom in methyl carbocation contains how many pairs of electrons?
(a) 8
(b) 4
(c) 3
(d) 5
Answer:
(b) 4

Question 34.
The optically inactive compound is
(a) Glucose
(b) Lactic acid
(c) 2-Chlorobutane
(d) 2-Chloropropane
Answer:
(d) 2-Chloropropane

Question 35.
The hydrogen halide which does not obey Markownikv rule in presence of peroxide is
(a) HC1
(b) HBr
(c) HF
(d) HI
Answer:
(b) HBr

Question 36.
Which one of the following is NOT used to prepare alkyl halide from an alcohol ?
(a) SOCl₂
(b) PC1₃
(c) HC1 + ZnCl₂
(d) NaCl
Answer:
(d) NaCl

Question 37.
The total number of electrons present in the central carbon atom of a free radical is
(a) 7
(b) 8
(c) 9
(d) 6
Answer:
(a) 7

Question 38.
In which of the following pairs both are nucleophiles ?
(a) BF₃, AICI₃
(b) NO⁺₂, Cl^–
(c) CN^–, NH₃
(d) Br⁺, BC1₃
Answer:
(c) CN^–, NH₃

Question 39.
Which one of the following alkane is NOT formed in Wurtz reaction ?
(a) Methane
(b) Ethane
(c) Propane
(d) Butane
Answer:
(a) Methane

Question 40.
Which of the following groups has highest priority according to R, S convention?
(a) CH₂OH
(b) COOH
(c) COCH₃
(d) COOCH₃
Answer:
(d) COOCH₃

Question 41.
The halogen atom in aryl halides is
(a) o- and p-di reefing
(b) m-directing
(c) o, m and p-di reefing
(d) only m-directing
Answer:
(a) o- and p-di reefing

Question 42.
Chlorobenzene can be obtained by benzene diazonium chloride by
(a) Friedel Craft’s reaction
(b) Wurtz reaction
(c) Gatterman’s reaction
(d) Fittig reaction
Answer:
(c) Gatterman’s reaction

Question 43.
Which of the following carbocations is least stable ?


Answer:
(c)

Question 44.
But-l-ene on reaction with HCI in the presence of sodium peroxide yields
(a) n-butyl chloride
(b) isobutyl chloride
(c) secondary butyl chloride
(d) tertiary butyl chloride
Answer:
(c) secondary butyl chloride

Question 45.
Carbon tetrachloride is used as
(a) anaesthetic
(b) antiseptic
(c) dry cleaning agent
(d) fire extinguisher
Answer:
(c) dry cleaning agent

Question 46.
Identify the product D in the following sequence of reactions :

(a) 2, 2-dimethyl butane
(b) 2, 3-dimethyl butane
(C) hexane
(d) 2, 4-dimethylpentane
Answer:
(b) 2, 3-dimethyl butane

Question 47.
The preparation of alkyl fluoride from alkyl chlor ide, in presence of metallic fluorides is known as
(a) Williamson’s reaction
(b) Finkeistein reaction
(c) Swarts reaction
(d) Wurlz reaction
Answer:
(c) Swarts reaction

Question 48.
UPAC name of the following compound is

(a) 3-Bromo-3, 4-dimetbyiheptane
(b) 3,4-dimethyl-3-bromoheptane
(c) 5-Bromo-4,5-dimethylheptane
(d) 4,5-dimethyl-5-bromoheptane
Answer:
(a) 3-Bromo-3, 4-dimetbyiheptane